What we know about forest management in Xi Xi clearly allows us to refer it to the East Asian, and not to the Central Asian model of nature management, although the natural and climatic conditions in the Tangut state were much closer to those in Central Asia. The noted features of the exploitation of forest resources, coupled with the creation of protective forest belts, indicate a high culture of nature management in the Tangut power, which corresponded to its overall high cultural level.
Key words: forest management, forest plantations, Si Xia, tanguts.
Wood and other so-called non-wood products of the forest-mushrooms, food plants, medicinal raw materials, etc. - are important resources that meet the diverse needs of people. Despite the fact that in the Tangut state of Xi Xia (982-1227), cattle breeding and irrigated agriculture were the leading sectors of the economy, forest management played a significant role in it. The economy of this state as a whole and its individual components were analyzed by the leading Russian expert on the history of the Tanguts, E. I. Kychanov, on the basis of a thorough study of the Tangut script monuments stored in the manuscript fund of the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Russian Academy of Sciences (St. Petersburg), and highlighted by him in a number of articles. However, the issues of forest management and afforestation in Xi Xia have not yet been specifically discussed. I will try to fill in this gap as much as possible.
Materials on Tangut forest management are scattered over several preserved sources discovered by P. K. Kozlov's expedition to Khara-Khoto. Perhaps the most informative and interesting materials are contained in the original Tangut work of the second half of the XII century "The Sea of Meanings established by the Saints" (ngu wo ngôn). This essay is a kind of encyclopedia, built on the type of Chinese Lei shu and includes information about the world around us and human society. Valuable information is also provided by the 20-volume Xi Xia Code of Laws, compiled presumably in 1169 and containing articles on the protective planting of trees and shrubs. Useful materials can be found in dictionaries and some other works of secular literature of this state.
Unfortunately, from the fifth chapter of the Sea of Meanings, devoted to the description of trees and other plants, only the very beginning has been preserved, which reads::
"The nature of the tree is generated by the earth.
Extensive forests, mountain roots,
Different birds seek shelter in the evening [in the foliage of trees],
Wild animals take shelter during the day [in the forest thickets],
In summer, trees provide shade and coolness
; in cold winter, they retain heat... " [Morel, 1997,
p. 118].
page 5
In this case, the" generation " of a tree by the earth should be understood quite naturalistically, as the emergence of a young tree from the soil. This is not an allusion to the interconversion of the five primary elements that make up the Universe, since, according to the traditional Chinese scheme, the earth generates not wood, but metal (or rather, gives way to it), metal-water, and already water-wood, which in turn gives rise to fire.
The microclimatic significance of the forest is clearly described here: in summer, it is cooler under the shade of the forest than in the open (this is obvious), and in winter it is really a little warmer there.
The Tanguts distinguished five types of terrain in their state: 1) wooded mountains, 2) hills, 3) sandy deserts, 4) plains (steppes) and 5) rivers and swamps 1. Of these, the first type is currently of interest for this study. About it, the "Sea of values" reports the following: "The birthplace of hidden roots of various herbs and trees, gold, silver and jewels. The refuge of wild animals. A habitat for leopards, tigers and deer among the nine beautiful animals. Various animals seek shelter in the mountains, and thousands of birds nest on the branches of trees" (Morye znachenii, 1997, p. 111). Given the natural and climatic features of this region, we can assume that in the historical past, as now, woody vegetation was confined to the mountains, where wetter conditions allowed it to successfully exist. In this essay, it is repeatedly mentioned about the rains, snows and fogs that the mountains of the Tangut country are famous for.
Although the author (or authors) of the cited compendium clearly admires the nature of their homeland, and in particular its forests, he is not only a contemplative. In his opinion, the forested Tangut mountains and wind-sheltered intermountain valleys are suitable for farming: "A suitable place for pets, too. Yak and sheep herds are also convenient to graze in the mountains. On the mountain slopes that are convenient for cultivation, bread is grown. Waiting for rain, they plant rice. The land is not blown out in strong winds, it is suitable for sowing rice, hemp and buckwheat" [Morel, 1997, p. 111]. One of the Tangut sayings also speaks about the sowing of bread in the valleys among the mountains: "The enemy has attacked - you will not sow bread in the mountain valleys" [Re-collected..., 1974, p.97].
In the same monument, various mountain ranges located on the territory of Xi Xia are briefly described. Some of them were covered with forests. First of all, of course, are the Helanshan Mountains, which stretch west from the Yellow River Bend and are said to be second to none. Why did the compiler of the "Sea of Values" rate them so highly? The answer is given by him: "Everything in the mountains is available - both shady forests, and various fruit-bearing trees, edible and medicinal herbs. Leopards, tigers, and various deer are safely hidden in the mountains. Mountains protect you from winds and locust infestations" [More Values, 1997, p.114].
In this quote, I would like to draw attention to several points. First, the role of the forest as a source of plant food is emphasized, which certainly cannot be the Central Asian view of the forest. In well-known medieval Mongolian writings, the forest usually serves as a shelter from the enemy (even Temujin was forced to hide in the thickets of Burkhan-Khaldun) or a comfortable gathering place (such as the "Onon Oak Grove" from the "Secret Legend of the Mongols", although it hardly consisted of oaks - this tree does not grow in the harsh conditions of Mongolia). Secondly, the protective role of mountain forests - from wind and locusts-is indicated. The Helanshan Mountains covered the Tangut capital of Zhongxing. Yinchuan, Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region of China) from dry strong winds blowing from the Ala desert-
1 The Tangut classification is similar to the classification of lands according to the Confucian "Thirteen Books" text "Zhou Li": 1) mountains and forests, 2) rivers and lakes, 3) hills and hills, 4) plains and slopes, 5) lowlands and swamps [Stein, 1959, p. 371], but all-taki does not coincide with it, once again demonstrating the uniqueness of the culture and worldview of the Tanguts.
page 6
shan. These mountains had an unsurpassed sacred significance as the location of temples and monasteries of numerous saints. Hermit caves were located on the southern, warm slopes [More Values, 1997, pp. 114-115]2. According to some researchers, the Tanguts created a cult center in the Helan Mountains in the image of the Chinese Wutaishan (Dunnel, 1996, p. 35; Solonin, 2007, p. 67-71; Debrecen, 2011, p.11-12).
People exploited the forest riches of the Helanan Mountains, and they did it prudently, not chasing momentary benefits to the detriment of the future: "People use ten thousand different types of trees and do not seek to cut down [them]" [More values, 1997, p. 114]. The expression "ten thousand different types of trees", of course, can not be taken literally. Most likely, this is the same metaphor as in the wish for "ten thousand years of life" to the Chinese emperor, i.e., essentially an infinitely large value, but it could be a real significant variety of woody vegetation of this mountain range. It is unclear what motivations prompted loggers to take care of forest resources. The surviving chapters of Tangut law monuments practically do not regulate forest management, so we can only guess whether there was criminal liability for violations related to the extraction of wood (as well as other forest gifts), whether the sacred status of Helanshan restricted logging, which seems most likely, or whether there were some traditional forms of regulation related to the extraction of wood (as well as other forest gifts). with animism, etc., perhaps the Buddhist teaching also played a role, which forbade causing unjustified harm to nature. However, it is well known that the forests in Xi Xia, especially in Helanshan, were under state control, as the laws mention the "Helanshan and other Forest protection Agency". The cases of this department were not considered particularly important: they were supposed to be investigated on the spot [Amended and re-approved Code..., 1989(1), p. 47].
Forests are also mentioned in the "Sea of Meanings" in connection with other mountains, some of which were correlated by E. I. Kychanov with the modern names of mountains on the lands of the former Tangut state. All the following identifications of mountain locations belong to this researcher and are given by him in the introductory article to the publication of the monument.
In the Alanpalian Mountains, rich in various trees and probably located in the northern part of modern Shenmu County in Shaanxi, ore was smelted and tools and utensils were forged from iron [Morel, 1997, p. 115]. Obviously, charcoal was used to produce the metal, which was prepared here. In Northern China, there was a profession of a charcoal burner [Modified and re-approved Code..., 1987, p. 147].
Located in the west, the steep-sided Moshan Mountains (presumably present-day Beishan) served as a hunting ground. There was a lot of game there, as well as trees and grasses [More Values, 1997, p. 116].
The Xishan Plateau (possibly in the area of the modern city of Wuwei in Gansu) was famous for its thick-trunked trees. They were used to make logs. Charcoal was also burned there, which was used to heat homes in winter [Morel, 1997, p. 116]. This method of heating is completely atypical for Central Asia, where, as is known, the population for thousands of years used and continues to use even now dry cattle droppings-argal.
An interesting list of natural gifts obtained by the Tanguts in the Yueguang Mountains of Yinzhou County (located in the north-west of present-day Mizhi County in Shaanxi)is interesting:
2 According to a 1736 Chinese source, "A Summary of Gansu Province Compiled by decree", the Helanan Mountains "contain more than a hundred abandoned monasteries and ruins of Yuanhao country palaces "(cit. according to: [Menshikov, 1984, p. 69]). Yuan-hao was the ruler of the Tangut state from 1031 (1032) to 1048, who assumed the imperial title in 1038 and claimed equal rights with the Sung emperor.
page 7
valuable tree species, fruits, honey, chaga mushroom. Now this fungus, which is a parasite on the birch tree, is used as a medicine. Presumably, the Tanguts knew about its healing properties, which were also known to the Chinese. In Chinese, Mongolian, and Russian folk medicine, chaga (Inonotus obliquus, mown tinder) is considered a remedy for stomach diseases and cancer; modern studies confirm the antitumor activity of the substances contained in it [Ligaa, Davaasuren, and Ninjil, 2009, p. 156; Lixia Zhang et al., 2011, p. 1251-1260]. It also mentions pure snow water, which may also have been used in some way (for medicinal purposes?), and some oil, about which we have nothing to assume yet. In addition, hemp was grown in these mountains for making canvases and precious stones were mined [Morel, 1997, p. 116]. About the "precious Weijing mountains" it is said that there they cut down various trees with long trunks into logs, and also melted iron and made all sorts of tools, piercing and cutting tools from it [Morel, 1997, p. 117]. In the Monin Mountains, "tens of thousands of different trees, herbs, medicinal herbs and roots grow, all of which are used by people" [More Meanings, 1997, p. 117]. Finally, the "beautiful Bivan Mountains", which may have been located to the east of Khara-Khoto, where along with a variety of trees, roots and fruits, a drill forest grew, deserve attention [Morel, 1997, p.117].
In some places, forests could also grow on the plains. During his first visit to Khara-Khoto in 1908, P. K. Kozlov recorded a legend that about 450 years ago the banks of the Ejing Gol were covered with "impenetrable thickets of forest", but the Torgouts who came from Dzungaria burned them out for pasture for three years [Kozlov, 1947, p. 75]. Marco Polo seems to confirm this information in his description of the city of Yezin (Yijinai, as Harahoto was called in the Yuan era (Kazin, 1961, p. 278)) and its environs: "There are some pine groves here and there" [Marco Polo's Book, 1997, p. 232]. The expedition of P. K. Kozlov did not meet pine trees in these parts, but found a lot of poplar hoarfrost and remnants of poplar trunks. Today, the local Chinese population calls this tree hu yang, i.e. "barbarian poplar".
Who was the owner of the country's forest wealth? Available sources do not report this. Apparently, as in the case of other lands, the state in the person of the emperor was the supreme owner of the forest-covered areas, but they could not belong directly to either the emperor or a private person, but be in public use, as was the case in China. "It is forbidden to seize mountains, swamps, lakes," says the Sung edict of 1049, "the benefits of mountains and forests are resources used by the people" (cit. by: [Kychanov, 1986, p. 203-204]). Whether the emperor had reserves in the forested mountains for hunting is unknown, but we can only assume that in certain areas, such as those surrounding Buddhist monasteries, hunting, logging and mining were prohibited.
Judging by the text of the "Sea of Meanings", the real owners of the forests were not people, but mountain spirits: "Poisonous and medicinal roots, trees, gold and silver, various kinds of treasures owned by the mountains-all this is formed and multiplied, grows thanks to the protection of guardian spirits" [Morel, 1997, p.117]. The Tangut understanding of the world around them in this respect hardly had any noticeable differences from the ideas of other peoples of Central and East Asia. No natural process could take place spontaneously, it was directed by the will of the corresponding spirit. No object of living or inanimate nature could exist by itself, it was under the control of its master spirit. In some ways, just as nature is hierarchically organized, the spirits who protect it also appear to people to be organized in a hierarchy-from minor guardians of individual trees, rocks, or streams to powerful lords of entire mountain systems.
Forests and woody vegetation are reflected in the Tangut calendar. This calendar has come down to us in two similar versions: one (unfortunately, incomplete, including-
page 8
The second part is represented by an ode with the self-explanatory title "Month by Month", also preserved in the Tangut part of P. K. Kozlov's collection from Khara-Khoto and translated into Russian by E. I. Kychanov. Below is a summary of materials on the topic of interest from both versions.
The record of Tangut household chores in the first month of the year provides interesting information about feeding yaks and sheep with pre-prepared tender leaves of the ginkgo tree (Ginkgo biloba, ginkgo biloba) [Morel, 1997, p.23]. For European science, this relict tree was discovered in 1690 by the doctor of the Dutch embassy in Japan, E. Kempfer. It was brought to Japan from China, where it was cultivated in monasteries, and in natural conditions ginkgo is preserved only in a small area in Eastern China, in the Dian Mushan Mountains, along the border between the provinces of Zhejiang and Anhui. Now it is widely used in gardening in many countries of the world with temperate climates, as well as in medicine. Feeding ginkgo leaves to sheep just when they are having lambs suggests that the Tanguts were aware of its beneficial properties. However, it remains a mystery where they could have harvested its leaves in sufficient quantities; it can be assumed that ginkgo in Xi Xia was grown artificially in monasteries, continuing the Chinese tradition. From the Chinese, they could also learn about the benefits of this tree.
In the second month, "peach trees bloom along the edges of the roads" [More Meanings, 1997, p. 23]. Here, in my opinion, is a direct indication that it was customary among the Tanguts to plant trees on roads, and fruit trees, which not only gave the traveler shade, but also could provide him with food. In the current practice of protective afforestation, it is also recommended to plant fruit trees and shrubs along roads and around fields, where soil and climatic conditions allow it. Tanguts planted plots of land with trees [Modified and newly approved Code..., 1989(2), p. 101]. In the second month, the forests in Xi Xia were already beginning to be covered with young leaves, or, as the ode says, "Under the huge face of heaven, the forests turn gray" (Morel, 1997, p. 24).
In the third month, the Tanguts planted trees [More Meanings, 1997, p. 24]. The Ode does not specify which ones, but we can assume with a high degree of probability that we are talking not only about garden crops. Spring is the time of laying and repairing irrigation channels, the banks of which were strengthened by planting trees and shrubs. This will be discussed below.
The life of plants, in particular trees, in the fourth and fifth months is described as abundance and flowering, but no economic activities in relation to trees or shrubs are reported [Morel, 1997, p. 24-25].
The record of the sixth month includes information about Tangut saddles that had a white wooden base. There is no information about what kind of trees they were made from [Morel, 1997, p. 25].
According to the "Sea of Meanings", on the fifteenth day of the seventh month, monks "paid tribute to the trees" and gathered near the sacred Ngiu stone, where people, from the emperor to the common people, placed vessels with sacrifices, repented and confessed [Sea of Meanings, 1997, p. 105]. This is not reported in the ode. What the "retribution" ritual looked like and whether it can be considered a relic of shamanic worship of sacred trees is unknown.
In the eighth month, the fruits of peach, jujube, acacia and grapes ripened [Morel, 1997, p. 105]. The ode entry is devoid of this data.
In the ninth month, the last fruits of chestnut, persimmon and plum ripened. There was plenty in the state. Cultivated woody plants stopped growing shoots, and people pruned them. At the same time, the cuttings did not disappear, but were used for fuel [Morel, 1997, p.106-107]. This is not found in the ode.
page 9
The tenth month was characterized by winds and cold. Wild goats ran away from the bad weather into the forests, and hunters chased them on horseback and shot bows [Morel, 1997, p. 108]. The Ode speaks about the flight of goats, but it is silent about hunters [More Meanings, 1997, p. 27].
The eleventh month is "the time of leaf fall in dense forests" [Morye znachenii, 1997, p. 108]. Instead, the Ode reports that the subjects of the White High State-as the Tanguts themselves poetically called their homeland-descend from the mountains into dense forests [More Meanings, 1997, p. 27], i.e. shepherds move to winter pastures under the protection of forests (recall what was said about the warming role of the forest in winter at the beginning of the fifth century). the Sea of Meanings chapters).
The description of the twelfth month neither in the Sea of Meanings nor in the ode adds any new information.
Apparently, there were professional woodcutters in Xi Xi; at least the corresponding word is recorded in Tangut texts [Dictionary of the Tangut (Xi Xi) language, 2006, p. 622], but references to woodcutting tools are very rare. For example, in the essay "Newly collected precious grains of gold in the palm of your hand", which is a textbook for students of the Tangut script (an analogue of the Chinese "Thousand Words", which also counted a thousand ideographs), there is the phrase "Trees are cut down with an axe" (Kychanov, 1969, p. 218).
The "New Laws", drawn up during the reign of Guang di (1211-1223), report: "As for the construction work on the islands and in places where there are thickets of trees and shrubs, the [senior] 30 subordinate candidates for service, the directing and lichzhener 3 - three officials allocate 100 people. [These people] cut down 330 jin each of wood and shrubs in a few days. Among them, every 30 jin is not suitable [for construction work], and actually represents 300 jin each time. The price of work for one jin is one coin. [Workers] are given summer and winter clothing" [New Laws, ch. 16-17, art. 2] 4.
Translated into modern weight measures, it turns out that the logger was required to prepare about 172 kg of business wood, and 18 kg went to waste (in fact, apparently, for fuel). Thus, the legally established yield of business wood intended for construction work should have been about 80.9 %, which is very close to the first, i.e. the highest class of marketability of coniferous plantations, according to the standards adopted in the forestry sector of the USSR and then approved in the Russian Federation [All-Union standards..., 1992, p. 169; Manual..., 1993] 5. Without information on the types of trees cut down by Tanguts and their ripeness, it is impossible to make more correct comparisons, but the figures given indicate a very high labor productivity of Tangut loggers.
The wood extracted from the forests was processed in specialized workshops. Unfortunately, researchers do not have any information about their work, but it follows from the "Modified and re-approved Code" that they were subordinate to the "Management of Wood Processing Workshops" [Modified and re-approved Code..., 1989(1), p.110]. Business wood was stored in warehouses [Modified and newly approved Code..., 1989(2), p. 127]. Apparently, eighteen fragments of documents in Chinese that are part of the Chinese part of the collection from Khara-Khoto, stored in the IVR RAS (P. K. Kozlov Foundation) under the code Dx-2828 and
3 This position may have been appropriate for the village headman of the village district.
4 I thank E. I. Kychanov for the kind opportunity to read the translation of this work, which he prepared for publication in the series "Monuments of Oriental Writing".
5 Marketability of a forest is understood as a qualitative characteristic of the wood stock of a stand by the output of marketable products, and the term "stand" refers to both artificially grown forest and naturally formed.
page 10
dating back to 1172, they are associated with the registration of building materials, primarily boards, in warehouses. Some of these documents indicate how many boards and what sizes were included in the accounting unit "to" ("bundle", "bale"), which calculated the amount of wood delivered to the warehouse. According to L. N. Menshikov, the boards recorded in these documents were prepared between April 25 and July 22 in Huaiyuanxian County 6. Judging by the record in the last of these fragments, there may have been a tax paid by wood in the Northern Sea of China (Menshikov, 1984, pp. 379-383). Charcoal was also stored in warehouses [Modified and newly approved Code..., 1989(2), p. 146]. For carpentry work, a chisel, drill, drill bit, saw, marking cord, plane (?), carpenter's knife were used [Terentyev-Katansky, 1993, p.129, 192-193]. Wood has found various uses in the country's economy, but the discussion of this issue is not included in the tasks of this article.
The trees produced more than just wood. Sap was extracted from a certain hetho tree [Modified and re-approved Codex..., 1989(1), p. 47], but what it was and what it was used for is unknown. Judging by the fact that its extraction deserved a separate mention in the Code of laws, one can think that either it was put on an "industrial" basis, or this "juice" was a particularly valuable (medicinal, poisonous, resinous or some other) substance.
The bark of some tree species was used to produce paper:" They make paper out of clean white rags and tree bark " (Morel pishis, 1969, p.320). Given the highly developed printing industry in Northern Asia, we can assume that a lot of bark was required, although the main raw material was still rags, which makes it possible to classify Tangut paper as a variety of Central Asian paper (Terentyev-Katansky, 1981, p. 13).
In the Tangut state, the land tax was levied on grain, hay and brushwood: "The Transport Department of the General Government, in accordance with the law, must receive hay and brushwood from all owners of taxable yards subordinate to it and create warehouses for [their] storage" [Amended and re-approved Code..., 1989(2), p. 91] 7. Brushwood was used for various purposes, in particular for the construction and repair of dams. At the same time, the code does not explain which types of trees and shrubs were suitable for harvesting it. Other Tangut works also do not shed light on this issue, but archaeological research provides reliable information. Thus, it is established that along the northern borders of Xi Xia, walls and watchtowers were built to protect against nomadic invasions, and branches and whole trees of willow and poplar served as important structural materials, and in desert areas - saxaul. Often, trees were laid with a crown inside the wall on both sides for better coupling and interspersed with layers of earth. In the Dunhuang region, reeds were used for this purpose (Kovalev, 2008: 103-116; Kovalev, 2012: 154-185).
Thus, we can confidently speak of a highly developed integrated forest management of the Tanguts. Not only wood was used,but also other natural resources from the forested lands.
The current level of science does not yet allow us to fully decipher the names of all the trees and shrubs found in the texts. S. V. Dmitriev, a Moscow sinologist, has recently begun important work in this area [Dmitriev, 2012, pp. 97-119]. Among the fruit, berry and nut trees, the springs name apricot, pear, orange, plum, cherry, persimmon, jujube, pomegranate, chestnut, lychee, apple tree, walnut, pistachio, and among the wild ones-pine, thuja, dragon cypress, fir, elm, poplar, willow, sycamore, blackthorn, apple tree- Chinese, white cryptomeria, melia, saxaul. Of course, not all the names of trees and shrubs found in Tangut texts
6 This uyezd was located to the south-east of the Tangut capital [Kychanov, 2008, p. 175].
7 Taxation of firewood also existed in Dunhuang, which became part of Xi Xia in 1036. For example, one of the documents (Dx-2149b), dated to the tenth century, provides a list of defaulters of Mogaoxiang Parish who did not hand over firewood to the authorities [Chinese documents from Dunhuang, 1983, p.142].
page 11
denoted the types of dendroflora of this state. Some of the mentioned trees grew in the southern provinces of China, such as orange and lizhi, and their fruits could be brought to Xi Xia. By the time of the formation of Tangut statehood, Chinese breeders managed to produce dozens of varieties of fruit and berry trees.
Jia Si-se (VI century) in the work "Qi ming yao shu" ("Essential ways of life of the common people") mentions Tao peach 12 varieties, Li pear also 12 varieties, li plum, zhuzhub tsao 45 varieties, chestnut, apricot, walnut, lizhi, etc. At least from the second century onwards, the shi liu pomegranate, apple tree, and walnut were known in China. In the book "Nung Shu"written already under Yuan ("Agricultural Book") Wang Zheng speaks of pear, peach, jujube, lizhi, sap zhi mulberry, tsao persimmon, long yan dragon's eye, plum, pomegranate, mu gua melon tree, and ju mandarin, which were already very numerous varieties [Gorbacheva, 1969, p. 83]. Some of the cultivars that are unpretentious to the climate and soil may have been introduced in Northern China.
Fruit trees are part of Tangut proverbs:
"There is food at the top of the tree, but my throat is cramped [from hunger] ,
There is water in a deep well, but the sky is dry [from thirst]" [Newly collected..., 1974, p. 92];
"Zhuzhub ate, but the sky is not pricked,
I drank the cream, but I didn't whiten my lips" [Re-collected..., 1974, p.97].
Some trees were held in special reverence by the Tanguts. For example, the non-growing heat-loving sandalwood (Santalum album) in the dictionary "Sea of Letters" says that it is "really the best of the tree species" [Sea of Letters, 1969, p.312]. Undoubtedly, such an overestimation of its value stemmed from the connection of this tree with Buddhist culture. Most likely, the Tanguts got acquainted with sandalwood through the Chinese, who already in 454 had a special word for sandalwood as a tree used for making various crafts, furniture, religious images, and as a medicine (Schaefer, 1981, pp. 185-187). Sandalwood appears in the list of medicinal substances in the Tangut Codex of 1169. It is interesting that amber is also mentioned there after the name of the extinct pine Pinus succinifera [Modified and re-approved codex..., 1989(2), p. 146], the fossil resin of which is actually amber, as well as quite a lot of different medicinal raw materials of wood origin, which are not always identifiable.
Perhaps Chinese motifs sound in the idea of evergreen coniferous trees as symbols of longevity and courageous resistance to life's adversities.:
"With pine and thuja in longevity can not be compared!
Who can equate themselves with stone and water? " [Re-collected..., 1974, p. 99].
However, most likely this meant not thuja, but cypress (although both of these trees belong to the same cypress family), since in China it is he who, along with pine, symbolized longevity. Perhaps this is an allusion to the well-known statement of Confucius: "Only with the onset of cold weather will you know that pine and cypress are the last to wither" (Perelomov, 1998, p.368). Close to this is a saying from the same collection:
"Pine - prosperity, thuja-youth,
Reeds - deception, reeds-emptiness "[Newly collected..., 1974, p. 117].
The Tanguy state quite harmoniously combined nomadic pastoral and sedentary agriculture. This dualism was also reflected in the attitude of its population to woody vegetation. For a nomad, it is completely uncharacteristic to take care of the forest, and even more so to take care of its multiplication. However, in Xi Xia, a significant part of the population was made up of farmers: both the Tanguts themselves and the Chinese, Uyghurs and other peoples living on its territory. Sustainable crops could be obtained with artificial irrigation, so the central regions of the country were covered with a network of large and small irrigation channels, the number of which reached-
page 12
halo 68. The work on their repair and on the creation of new channels was a matter of national importance. Every spring, people were sent to these jobs [Kychanov, 1981, p. 121-125; Kychanov, 2012, p.1-20]. In order to avoid the rapid failure of the canals, their banks were strengthened by planting trees and shrubs, which were strictly protected from unauthorized logging or other damage. Fortunately, articles of the law have come down to us, which describe in detail both measures to protect protective landings and criminal liability for causing them harm. These texts impress with their ecological and forestry literacy, developed 600 years before the foundation of the basic principles of protective afforestation in Europe. Let's quote them.
"A traveling inspector should be sent to these channels 8 every year, [monitoring] the water in the canal, and the canal manager, who in the area entrusted to them should carefully monitor the trees, shrubs and grasses growing along the canal. No one is allowed to cut down [trees] or mow [grass along the canal]. If anyone cuts down [a tree or bush] or mows down grass [in the canal area], then [such a person] should be detained and reported to the official. The punishment [of the guilty person] is imposed according to the law. If the supervisor [of the canal] discovers [the poacher] and releases [him], [he] receives the same penalty as [the poacher]. If [he] overlooked, then [also] is subject to punishment: he is 13 sticks as an ordinary person, [he] is obliged to reimburse the cost of bushes and grass and carefully resume planting. If the destruction [of the banks and coastal vegetation] is allowed due to the negligence of those watching [the canal], then the person who serves the canal and committed negligence is punished with two degrees less than the one who directly caused damage to the canal " [Amended and re-approved Code..., 1989(2), p. 89].
It is noteworthy that the law does not make exceptions for anyone. The poacher's penalty is not defined here. The cost of shrubs and grasses, which must be reimbursed by the person responsible for the oversight, remains unclear. The ban on grass mowing is noteworthy, since herbaceous plants form a turf that reliably binds the soil and protects the canal banks from erosion.
"Along the Na, Lan, Han, and Yan channels, and all other sovereign channels, the sovereign and private owners of tax yards in those places where [their] lands approach [the canal], along the canal are obliged to plant willow, poplar, elm, and other trees, create [hedges] of shrubs, and take care of old plantings protect [them], prune young shoots in a timely manner, and do not cut down anything without planting another. Any person other than [these persons] is prohibited from cutting down trees and shrubs [near the canals]. The Transport Authority should periodically appoint a capable person to monitor [this]. If the law is violated, then the one who did not make landings [is subject to punishment]: a fine of 1 horse per rank, and 13 sticks for a common person. Anyone who planted trees and shrubs, but did not save [them] or inadvertently fed cattle, together with the owner of the cattle [is subject to punishment]: a common man 20 thin sticks, with a rank - a fine of 5 ldiy (jin) of iron. If among such [violators] there is a stranger who has cut down a tree or bush belonging to the sovereign or private owner, then the sentence [guilty] is pronounced as for secret theft, depending on the value of [damage caused] in monetary terms. If someone denounces [about the felling], the informer will receive a reward as for denouncing a secret theft. If the person who watches over these trees and shrubs and protects them catches [the poacher] himself and reports [him], then [he] is released from punishment. If [such a person] himself cuts down [a tree or bush near the canal], then regardless of the number of trees cut down, an ordinary person is given 13 sticks, with a fine of 1 horse with a rank " [Amended and re-approved Code..., 1989(2), pp. 95-96].
8 This refers to the Na, Lan, Han, Yan, and Wess Canals, large canals that were dug (or reconstructed) in the early or mid-twelfth century and were state-owned. Especially extensive was the construction of irrigation facilities near the cities of Yinchuan and Lingwu (Kichanov, 1981, p. 121). According to the Xi Xia administrative division, the area of irrigated land was part of the interior of the country. It was called the "Five Counties", or in Chinese" Wu Zhou " (this designation was known since the Tang Dynasty), and included Yinzhou, Xiazhou, Suizhou, Yuzhou and Jingzhou. The "five districts" covered the territory from the central Ordos in the east to the Helanshan Mountains in the west [Amended and re-approved Code..., 1988, pp. 366-367]. It is likely that some of the canals were inherited by the Tanguts from the Chinese, so it is acceptable to think that the landings along their banks, if they existed, could also be Chinese heritage.
page 13
So, landings were assigned to the owners of land adjacent to the canals, and supervision was assigned to an official from the Transport Department. This article lists the tree species recommended for planting along the banks of the sovereign canals, and it should be noted that this is quite a reasonable choice: moisture-loving willow and poplar, which grow well in the wild along the banks of rivers in Central Asia, quickly create dense thickets that can successfully protect the canal from falling asleep with sand, and in addition give shading that reduces evaporation from the water surface. The root systems of these rocks fix the soil well from erosion by the flow of water and scattering by the wind. In China, the strengthening of dams with the help of willow was prescribed by the treatise "Guan-tzu", the first edition of which dates back to the middle of the third century BC. When the Great Canal was repaired and lengthened under the Sui Emperor Yang-di (605-616), chui-liu weeping willows (Salix babylonica)were planted on the dams along its entire length. People were told that they would receive a piece of silk for each willow tree, and the common people competed with each other in planting them [Menzies, 1996, pp. 591-592]. Liu Chuang-Hsiang, a Minsk official who was responsible for flood control projects in the Yellow River, developed the recommendation "Six Ways to use willow for River Management", in which he proposed ways to use this tree both directly to strengthen dams and indirectly, through weakening the water flow [Menzies, 1996, p.617-618]. It is clear that the Tanguts could no longer take advantage of this experience.
Elm is much more drought-resistant and suitable for gardening in conditions of lack of moisture. It is widely distributed in the arid regions of Central Asia and is able, together with some other trees and shrubs, to form dense forests in river valleys - the so-called urema. Some types of elm were used in China to strengthen dams, and on the borders of Shaanxi and Inner Mongolia, protective barriers were created from planting these trees to make it difficult for nomads to enter [Menzies, 1996, p. 586, 658-659]. It can be assumed that in the Tangut state there could have been such barrages that simultaneously strengthened the banks of the canals and created an additional obstacle for the enemy cavalry. In this case, their strict protection is even more justified. As a matter of fact, the purpose of creating forest plantations is not clearly spelled out in any article of the code, and it is impossible to exclude the possibility of their strategic purpose.
In the cited article, care for plantings is indicated, in particular pruning shoots, which gives reason to assume purposeful crown formation. In this way, it was possible to achieve the desired density of protective forest belts. Here, in fact, the dominant principle of forest management is postulated, which was formulated several centuries later by the outstanding Russian forester G. F. Morozov (1867-1920): "Felling is synonymous with renewal". The law prohibits cutting down anything without providing a replacement.
However, it was not enough just to plant trees or shrubs, it was also necessary to save them. Judging by the quoted text, the main enemy of landings was cattle. Knowing the peculiarities of nutrition of different breeds of cattle, we can safely say that the greatest threat could be represented by goats that willingly consume branch feed. From an ecological point of view, these animals are very dangerous for the environment. Today, it is the goats that are able to turn the pastures of Mongolia into a desert, as it happened in ancient Greece.
The arid climate of Xi Xia undoubtedly created difficulties for the cultivation of woody vegetation. According to the research of specialists and long-term world practice of forestry, with an average annual precipitation of less than 350-400 mm and high evaporation rate, the growth of trees due to the peculiarities of their physiology becomes almost impossible. But even in places with sufficient moisture, droughts could occur from time to time, devastating trees and shrubs. This natural disaster has been hitting the country for several years. 1003, 1008, 1010, 1061, 1069, 1085, 1087-1089, 1128, 1176 and 1222-1224. [Kychanov, 1968, p. 88]. In the summer of 1226, a year before its final execution.
page 14
after the defeat of the Mongols, "in all the cities of Hexi, the grass and trees turned yellow from the drought" [Kychanov, 1968, p. 312]. Among the Syriac and Syro-Turkic fragments found in Khara-Khoto and Turfan studied by N. V. Pigulevskaya, there is a passage of the prayer appeal for rain dated from the 12th—13th centuries, which " tells about all the terrible consequences of the drought: the land and all its fruits dried up, the fields perish in the greedy expectation of dew, bulls low at the empty fields." pastures, farmers languish on barren land "[Pigulevskaya, 1940, p. 219].
Landings may have been affected for other reasons. In the spring of 1143, the Tangut empire suffered a strong earthquake, which had, frankly, atypical consequences: if you believe the source, all the trees in the areas that were hit by the elements died. Why? After all, ground movements, even breaking off part of the roots, can not be the cause of mass death of trees. Perhaps the answer lies in the description of this catastrophe: "Water gushed from the cracks formed in the ground and black sand came out" (Kychanov, 1968, p. 238). Trees could be destroyed by ground water if it was salty, which is quite likely in arid climates. Irrigation works in arid areas often lead to salinization of soils and the rise of salts from the lower soil horizons to the surface. Salt is deadly for the vast majority of tree species. In this connection, it is appropriate to recall that there were rich salt deposits on the territory of the Tangut state and the salt industry was widely developed.
Let's return to the code: "It is forbidden to strip the bark from the sovereign trees growing along the main canal, or to make [them] notches with an axe. If the law is broken, then [the guilty person] receives the same punishment as for cutting down a tree. The reward for denouncing [such a crime] is paid within the limits established by law" [Amended and re-approved Code..., 1989(2), p. 96].
This article of the law equates damage to trees with their felling. Perhaps this strictness is explained by the fact that we are talking about trees that protected the main, i.e. main, canal, which was the property of the emperor. Therefore, the trees are called "sovereign" here. In addition, in the biological sense, to strip the bark from a tree means to destroy it or, at least, to open the way wide for various infections to enter the wood tissues. Nicks and other mechanical damage also favor infection of the tree with bacterial or fungal pathogens. Apparently, the relationship between bark damage and tree wilt was clearly seen by the Tanguts.
Finally, the last of the articles of the code on protective landings reads:: "If the traveling inspectors [who monitor] the water in the canal and the canal managers do not strictly give orders to the owners of tax yards living along the main canal entrusted to [these officials], and trees are not planted along the sovereign's main canal, then the canal manager - 13 sticks, and the traveling inspector, [to watch] the water in the canal, - 10 sticks. If the trees were planted, and [the above-mentioned officials] see that a person has cut down the tree, and do not report [about it], then [they] receive the same punishment" [Amended and re-approved Code..., 1989(2), p.96].
The Code of 1169 also mentions the "irrigated and tree-lined [areas of] Helan" and "nine irrigated and tree-lined valleys" [Amended and re-approved Code..., 1989(2), p. 127].
These articles were compiled (or edited) at a time when Temujin, the future "Shaker of the Universe" Genghis Khan, who was destined by the Eternal Sky to become the gravedigger of the Tangut state, was already roaming the territory of present - day Mongolia. Apparently, the following article from the later collection of Tangut legal norms "New Laws" reflects the sad realities of irrigation and, more broadly, agriculture in Xi Xia, which suffered as a result of the Mongol invasions in 1205-1209. It seems that some part of the channels, most likely terminal ones, became unusable due to military operations and lack of proper maintenance, which led to
page 15
to reduce the area of irrigated land. Now that the Mongols 'attention was diverted to the wars with the Jurchen Jin Empire, it was their turn to rebuild:" There is not enough land. But you can make a lot of land if you calculate everything. These neglected ditches should be planted with trees and grass. ...It is allowed to plant trees and sow grasses in places, in the intervals from step to tsun" [New Laws, Chapter 15, Article 6]. Undoubtedly, what is new here is the indication of the distance allowed between the planted plants. It seems obvious that the distance between the saplings of trees should have been one step (probably a little less than 1 m, given the high growth of tanguts), and between the sown grasses - one tsun, i.e. 3.1 cm.
Protective forest plantations are mentioned in the surviving fragments of the same document once again: "[From now on], if based on this, every person has privately sown chumiz, rice, barley, expanded the land adjacent to the dwelling, then if the newly plowed land reaches 40 paces, on the back side of it there is a thin strip of forest and distant strips of chumiz rice and barley, then such "girdle" plantings are allowed. When violations are committed, you should act according to the law "[New Laws, Chapter 15, Article 6]. The text suggests that the width of the forest belts was very small, significantly less than what is provided for by modern standards, according to which it is necessary to plant trees and shrubs in several rows.
Perhaps the most intriguing question is whether the Tanguts borrowed these articles from Chinese law along with many other legal norms, and if so, how creatively did they approach the borrowing process, or did they develop them themselves, completely or with the help of someone else's experience? There is currently no way to answer this question. It is known that the source for the lawmaking of East Asian states in the Middle Ages (and for Sung China) was primarily Tang law, but the criminal regulations of Tang, although they include articles providing for punishment for improper maintenance of irrigation systems [Criminal Regulations of Tang..., 2008, pp. 69-71], do not say anything about forest plantations. Fragments of Tang service instructions addressed to the Water Department (shu'ibu) found in Dunhuang regulate in detail the use and maintenance of waterways and irrigation channels, but also do not contain any information about "green building" [Twitchett, 1957, p. 4]. 23-79]. The criminal law of the Song Dynasty, the modern power of the Tanguts, essentially repeated the Tang regulations. After the capture of the Jurchens in 1127. In northern China, the Tanguts were unlikely to be able to take as a model the Sung by-laws, especially the regulatory provisions of the ge and the internal regulations of shi, which could contain the regulations of interest to us.
It seems that the creation of landings along the canals in China was desirable, but by no means strictly mandatory, especially not stipulated in the criminal codes, although already in the " Zhou li "(the dating is unclear and covers the interval from the XI to III centuries BC) it is said about syxiang ("Manager of passages"), who it plans five types of canals and five types of roads and makes protective fences made of trees along them. The comment explains that these five types of channels are as follows:: sui (boundary ditches, ditches), gou (channels, ditches), si (small channels), kui (kuai) (medium channels; irrigation channels, ditches) , and chuan (large channels; channels) [Needham, Wang Ling, Lu Gwei-djen, 1971, p. 4] 9. This treatise, which had no direct relation to legislation, depicts the ideal structure of the state; the real state of affairs might have looked different. In any case, Sima Qian, describing the Han irrigation system in the "Treatise on Rivers and Canals" included in the "Historical Notes", bypasses the protective plantings in silence [Sima Qian, 1986, pp. 194-200].
9 I would like to thank S. V. Dmitriev (IB RAS) for explaining the above classification of channels and a number of other issues that have arisen in the course of working on this article.
page 16
The Tangut requirements in this regard look quite realistic and at the same time significantly more stringent, since they translate the problem of creating and maintaining protective landings into a criminal plane. This may be due to the harsher climate of Xi Xia, in particular the strong winds mentioned in the Tangut odes, which may have contributed to filling up the channels with sand and soil. Under these conditions, the preservation of" hedges " of trees and shrubs becomes more important.
Of course, all this is not yet true forestry, but rather "tree farming". It is not known whether Xi Xia planted forests in order to obtain wood of specified properties, as it has long been practiced in the Middle Kingdom. Nevertheless, the creation of protective strips of trees and shrubs along agricultural fields, roads and canals is rightfully the responsibility of foresters. It's hard to tell if there were professional foresters in Xi Xia. This profession is not found in the monuments of Tangut writing introduced into scientific circulation. Canal managers and inspectors, as well as ordinary farmers, hardly delved deeply into the issues of arboretum, since for them it was at best a secondary occupation. It seems that the following Tangut proverb can serve as an illustration of this thesis, although it probably developed long before the formation of the state and the rapid rise of Tangut culture:
"Who determined whether the stone lay low or high?
Who measured whether the tree's roots were long or short?" [Newly collected..., 1974, p. 98].
Nevertheless, the level of natural-scientific, and in particular dendrological, knowledge of the Tanguts was quite high, at least significantly higher than that achieved by the nomadic peoples of Central Asia in the Middle Ages. The vocabulary of the Tangut language is rich in terms related to forests and trees, their planting and cutting down. Therefore, what we know about forest management in Xi Xi clearly allows us to refer it to the East Asian, rather than the Central Asian model of nature management and environmental management, although the natural and climatic conditions in the Tangut state were much closer to those in Central Asia.
list of literature
Newly collected precious paired sayings. Facsimile of a woodcutter. Ed. text, translated from Tangut, intro, article and comment by E. I. Kychanov. Moscow: Main Editorial Office of Eastern Literature, 1974.
Gorbachev Z. I. From the history of the cultural flora of China (X-XN centuries) / / Countries and peoples of the East. Issue VIII. Moscow: Main Editorial Office of Eastern Literature, 1969.
Dmitriev S. V. Tangut plants no "Pearl in the palm of your hand". Tanguts in Central Asia: Collection of articles in honor of the 80th anniversary of Prof. E. I. Kychanov, Moscow: Vostochnaya literatura, 2012.
Revised and re-approved code of the motto of the reign of Heavenly Prosperity (1149-1169). Research. Kn. 1. Izd. teksta, transl., issl. and approx. E. I. Kychanova, Moscow: Main Editorial Office of Eastern Literature, 1988.
Revised and re-approved code of the motto of the reign of Heavenly Prosperity (1149-1169). Facsimile, translation, and notes. Ch. 1-7. Kn. 2. Izd. teksta, transl., issl. Moscow: Main Editorial Office of Eastern Literature, 1987.
Revised and re-approved code of the motto of the reign of Heavenly Prosperity (1149-1169). Facsimile, translation, and notes. Ch. 8-12. Kn. 3. Izd. teksta, transl., issl. and ed. by E. I. Kychanov, Moscow: Main Editorial Office of Eastern Literature, 1989 (1).
Revised and re-approved code of the motto of the reign of Heavenly Prosperity (1149-1169). Facsimile, translation, and notes. Ch. 13-20. Izd. teksta, transl., issl. and note by E. I. Kychanov. Book 4. Moscow: Main Editorial Office of Eastern Literature, 1989(2).
Kazin V. N. K istorii Khara-Khoto [On the History of Khara-Khoto]. Hermitage Museum, 1961.
Chinese documents from Dunhuang. Facsimile. Ed. of texts, transl., issl. and appended by L. I. Chuguevsky. Issue 1. Moscow: Main Editorial Office of Eastern Literature, 1983.
Marko Polo's Book / / Travel to Eastern countries, Moscow: Mysl', 1997.
page 17
Kovalev A. A. The Great Tangut Wall (interpretation of unexpected radiocarbon dating data) // Theory and practice of archaeological research. Issue 4. Barnaul: Altai State University Press, 2008.
Kovalev A. A. Severnaya granitsa tangutskogo gosudarstva Si Sya po dannym arkheologicheskikh i pis'mennykh istochnikov [The northern border of the Chinese Tangut State according to archaeological and written sources].
Kozlov P. K. Mongolia and Amdo and the dead city of Khara-Khoto. Moscow: OGIZ, 1947.
Kychanov E. I." Krupinki zolotogo na ladoni " posobie dlya izucheniya tangutskoy pis'mosti II Zhanry i stili literatur Kitay i Korey ["Grains of gold on the palm"]. Moscow: Glavnaya redaktionatsiya vostochnoi literatury, 1969.
Kychanov E. I. Irrigatsionnoe khozyaistvo Si Sya (pravovoi aspekt) [Irrigation economy of Northern Siberia (legal aspect)]. XV annual scientific session of the Leningrad Branch of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Part 1(1). Moscow: Nauka Publ., 1981.
Kychanov E. I. Istoriya tangutskogo gosudarstva [History of the Tangut state]. St. Petersburg: Faculty of Philology and Arts of St. Petersburg State University, 2008.
Kychanov E. I. Osnovy srednevekovogo kitayskogo prava [Fundamentals of Medieval Chinese Law]. Moscow: Main Editorial Office of Eastern Literature, 1986.
Kychanov E. I. Ocherk istorii tangutskogo gosudarstva [Essay on the History of the Tangut State].
Menshikov L. N. Description of the Chinese part of the collection from Khara-Khoto (Fund II.K. Kozlov). Moscow: Main Editorial Office of Eastern Literature, 1984.
A sea of values set by the saints. Facsimile of a woodcutter. Ed. text, preface, translated from Tangut, comment. and appended by E. I. Kychanova, St. Petersburg: Peterburgskoe vostokovedenie, 1997.
A sea of writings. Facsimile of Tangut woodcuts. Translated from Tangut, introductory articles and appendices by K. B. Ksping, V. S. Kolokolov, E. I. Kychanov and A. P. Tsrsntsva-Katansky. Part 1. Moscow: Main Editorial Office of Eastern Literature, 1969.
Manual on allotment and taxation of cutting areas in the forests of the Russian Federation, Moscow, 1993.
New Laws. Text ed., transl., issl. and approx. E. I. Kychanova (in print).
All-union standards for forest taxation / Ed. by V. V. Zagrssv et al. Moscow: Kolos, 1992.
Perelomov L. S. Confucius: "Lun yu". Issled., trans., comment. Facsimile text of "Lun Yu" with comments. Zhu Xi, Moscow: Vostochnaya literatura Publ., 1998.
Pigulovskaya N. V. Syriac and Syro-Turkic fragments from Khara-Khoto and Turfan // Soviet Oriental Studies, Vol. I. M.-L.: Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1940.
Dictionary of the Tangut (Si Xia) language. Tangut-Russian-English-Chinese dictionary. Comp. by E. I. Kychanov. Co-compiled by S. Arakawa. Kyoto: Kishimoto Printing Co., 2006.
Solonin K. Yu. Finding the teaching. The Huayang-Chang Tradition in the Buddhism of the Tangut State of Xi Xia, St. Petersburg: SPbU Publishing House, 2007.
Сыма Цянь. Istoricheskie zapiski ("Shi ji"), Vol. IV, translated by R. V. Vyatkina, Moscow: Main Editorial Office of Eastern Literature, 1986.
Tsrsntsv-Katansky A. P. Knizhnoe delo v gosudarstvo tangutov [Book business in the Tangut state]. Moscow: Glavnaya redaktionatsiya vostochnoy literatury, 1981.
Tsrsntsv-Katansky A. P. Materialnaya kul'tura Si Sya [Material Culture of the North Caucasus]. According to the Tangut lexicon and iconographic material, Moscow: Vostochnaya literatura, 1993.
Criminal regulations of Tang with explanations. Vol. 4. Tszyuani 26-30. Translated and commented by V. M. Rybakov. SPb.: Peterburgskoe vostokovedenie, 2008.
Shsfsr E. Golden peaches of Samarkand. The Book of foreign curiosities in the Tan Empire, Moscow: Main Editorial Office of Eastern Literature, 1981.
Stein V. M. Guan-tzu. Research and Translation, Moscow: Publishing House of Oriental Literature, 1959.
Dcbrcczcny К. Wutai shan: Pilgrimage to Five-Peak Mountain // Journal of the International Association of Tibetan Studies. 2011. № 6.
Dunncl R.W. The Great State of White and High: Buddhism and Stale Formation in Eleventh-Century Xia. Honolulu: University of Hawaii's Press, 1996.
Kychanov E.I. Irrigation in the Tangut State of Xi Xia (982-1227) // Talking about Dunhuang on the Riverside of the Neva / Ed. by Takata Tokio. Kyoto: Institute for Research in Humanities, 2012.
Ligaa U., Davaasuren D., Ninjil N. Medicinal Plants of Mongolia used in Western and Eastern Medicine. M.: Rossclkhozacadcmia, 2009.
Lixia Zhang, Cong Fan, Songchcn Liu, Zhenfcng Zang, Lili Jiao, and Liping Zhang. Chemical composition and antitumor activity of polysaccharide from Inonotus obliquus II Journal of Medicinal Plants Research. 2011. Vol. 5(7) (http://www.acadcmicjournals.org/jmpr/pdf/pdf2011/4April/Zhang%20ct%20al.pdf).
Mcnzics N.K. Forestry // Science and Civilization in China. Vol. 6. Pt III. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
Nccdham J., Wang Ling, Lu Gwci-djcn. Civil Engineering and Nautics // Science and Civilization in China. Vol. 4. Pt III. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971.
Twitchctt D.C. The Fragment of the T'ang Ordinances of the Department of Waterways Discovered at Tunhuang // Asia Major. New Series. Vol. VI. Pt 1. 1957.
page 18
New publications: |
Popular with readers: |
News from other countries: |
![]() |
Editorial Contacts |
About · News · For Advertisers |
![]() 2020-2025, BIBLIO.UZ is a part of Libmonster, international library network (open map) Keeping the heritage of Uzbekistan |