Libmonster ID: UZ-1404

V. D. KUBAREV, V. I. ZABELIN
V. D. Kubarev 1, V. I. Zabelin 2

1 Institute of Archeology and Ethnography SB RAS

17 Akademika Lavrentieva Ave., Novosibirsk, 630090, Russia

E-mail: vd@online.nsk.su

2 Tuva Institute of Integrated Natural Resources Development SB RAS

17 Internatsionalnaya St., Kyzyl, 667007, Russia

E-mail: oktargj@tuva.ru

Introduction

It is well known that any images - pictorial, graphic or sculptural-are created in the likeness of objects or phenomena that exist in nature. Without dwelling in detail on the role of art in primitive society, we will emphasize only its versatility and important cognitive significance. The ancient hunter's desire to portray an animal was ultimately aimed at mastering it. This process, according to V. B. Mirimanov [1973], was not an actual, but an "ideal" mastery not of the animal itself, but of its image, i.e., the process of comprehension and recognition. Its essence was very precisely defined by A. Hauser: "When a Paleolithic artist drew an animal on a rock, he was drawing a real animal. For him, the world of fiction and art was not yet an independent domain, separated from empirically perceived reality. He did not yet contrast or separate these spheres, but saw in one a direct continuation of the other " (cit. by: [Ibid., p. 73]). It is quite natural that animalistic motifs predominated among the images. The ancient artist captured mainly commercial animals that provided man with the necessary food, clothing, material for tools, etc.D. Some of the most archaic drawings, dating back many thousands of years, are petroglyphs (embossing, grinding, engraving, etc.) and scribbles (silhouette, contour, or combined paintings). on rocks, individual blocks, walls of grottoes and caves.

Ancient man, who lived in a certain geographical environment, reflected the real world of the animals around him. So, in Northern Europe (Norway, Sweden), images of moose, deer, bears, whales, and seals predominate; in Central Europe (France, Spain) on the walls of world-famous caves are depicted wild horses, bison, bulls, rhinos; in Africa - elephants, hippos, giraffes, antelopes [Ibid., p. 202]. In the south of the West Siberian Lowland, in particular on the famous Tomskaya Pisanitsa, moose figures dominate (Okladnikov and Martynov, 1972). The petroglyphs of Altai, Tuva and Western Mongolia contain the most widespread and numerous images of Siberian mountain goats and marals. Here, at the junction of the Siberian mountain-taiga and Central Asian desert-steppe zones, there was a high biodiversity and abundance of animals, which, of course, was reflected in ancient rock carvings [Potapov R. L., 1957, 1958; Yeshelkin, 1974]. The fairly frequent occurrence of images of elk and maral (forest dwellers) in this region indicates a broader development of woody vegetation in the late Pleistocene - early Holocene than at present.

The appearance of the ancient avifauna of any territory is restored by analyzing the sum of paleontological knowledge about the development of the world of birds on Earth. The main obstacle in the accumulation of data on birds of ancient epochs is considered to be the relatively low preservation of their feather cover and bone remains. In addition, their specific definition is rather difficult.-

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Figure 1. Location of archaeological and ethnographic monuments with ornithomorphic images in Central Asia. 1-Khoyt-Tsenker-agui, 2-Chandaman, 3-Khovd, 4-Aral-Tolgoi, 5-Khar-Salaa/Khar-Chuluu, 6-Tsagaan-Salaa/Baga-Oygur (Mongolia); 7-Juramal, 8-Karakol, 9-Tuekta (Altai); 10-Ovyur III, 11-Bijiktig-Khaya, 12-Ortaa-Sargol, 13-Aldy-Mozaga, 14-Suk-Pakskoye, 15-Arzhan-Khem (Tuva); 16-Tas-Khazaa. 17-Askiz, 18-Butrakhty (Khakassia); 19-Tomsk and Novoromanovskaya pisanitsy (Kemerovo region). a - Paleolithic, b - Neolithic, c - Eneolithic - bronze age, d - Iron Age, Middle Ages and ethnographic time.

division. For these reasons, the documentary evidence of paleoornithofauna is very fragmentary. Therefore, images of birds in rock carvings, on everyday objects, hunting tools, in ritual sculpture and sacred ornaments, their images in folklore and in religious rites of the population of a particular region can serve as an important, and sometimes the only source of information about the species composition of birds that lived in ancient times in Central Asia.

Based on published archaeological and ethnographic materials, as well as the authors ' own observations, the article attempts to systematize data on birds based on petroglyphs, small plastic objects, early literary sources, and shamanic practices of the peoples of Siberia and Central Asia. The location of the main archaeological and ethnographic sites with ornithomorphic images in this region is shown in Figure 1.

Iconography, chronology, and semantics of bird images in murals and petroglyphs

Birds attracted the attention of humans with an extraordinary ability to fly, which distinguishes them from other creatures that live on Earth. Therefore, about half of all images of birds represent them with their wings unfurled or in flight. The ability of some to be in two environments (ducks, loons) -

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others-to make mysterious sounds (owls, bitterns) or sing (songbirds) were also not ignored. Admiration for speed, agility, grace and strength probably served as an incentive for the image of birds of prey-eagles and falcons.

It is generally believed that the most ancient bird images dating back to the Upper Paleolithic were found in the Khoyt-Tsenker-agui cave in the northern foothills of the Mongolian Altai, about 100 km south of the city. Hovd. Ostriches and some other birds, as well as elephants, camels, mountain sheep, goats, and horses were drawn in four niches with a brown contour line (Okladnikov, 1972). The ostriches depicted in profile (Figs. 2, a, b) have a massive rounded body, a long thin neck and a small head without a beak that barely stands out on it, and relatively short legs (without fingers) are drawn with thin lines (Novgorodova, 1984, p.20). In one drawing, the bird's neck is stretched forward and up, so that the head rises above the body by about its height. The neck line merges smoothly into the back line; the joint of the neck and chest is shown with a ledge. In the middle of the body, a folded wing is drawn in two sinuous lines, touching the back of a lush, downward-curving tail. In the second bird, the tail and wing are not shown; the slope of the neck is more gentle. It gives the impression of the bird's tension when laying an egg (?), shown by an oval dot under the belly. Nine more such points are drawn in one horizontal row at the level of the head above the back and one-above the bend of the neck. If we assume that the dots represent eggs*, and this is the explanation given by A. P. Okladnikov and A. I. Martynov with respect to the point under the image of a bird on the Tomsk Pisanitsa [1972, p. 205, Fig. 2], then a long curved line crossing the bird figure under consideration, from a number of points to the assumed ground level, is possible. indicates the location of a clutch consisting of 12 eggs.

Since the identity of the birds depicted in the cave to ostriches was doubtful (Molodin and Cheremisin, 1999, p. 133), we will give arguments for and against this interpretation. Arguments "for": the general outline of a very long-necked figure - the neck is longer than the rest of the body, while in cranes they are approximately equal, and in bustards the neck is even slightly smaller (Fig. 2, d); the neck is as if attached to the body, and does not form a single whole with it, as in cranes a small beak that does not exceed the length of the small head is not shown at all, while cranes have a strong sharp beak 1.5-2 times longer than the head; the clutch, if the dots really mean eggs, consists of 12 eggs, which is more consistent with the modern ostrich (about 10 eggs) than the crane (2 eggs). In addition, ostriches in this region were contemporaries of the mammoth and probably lived in a later era. All of the above indicates that the ancient artist depicted an ostrich. Eggshells of this bird were found in Mongolia at the Paleolithic settlement of Moil-

2. Images of birds in Paleolithic paintings and engravings. a, b-ostriches, Hoyt-Tsenker-agui cave, Mongolia; c-ostrich, Calamus rock paintings, Northern Niger; d - running ostriches, Jabbaren, Algeria; e - bustard, defined by some researchers as an ostrich, North Africa; e - ostrich, bushman stone engraving, Foiresmith, South Africa Africa; w - emu, Northern Australia; w-flying saja (shown by arrow), other birds and camel, third niche of Hoyt-Tsenker-agui cave, Mongolia; i-kite (shown by arrow) and other birds, third niche of Hoyt-Tsenker-Agui cave, Mongolia; k - pelican (?), the fourth niche of the Hoyt-Tsenker-agui cave, Mongolia.

* Dots, spots, sometimes arranged in a chain, in the Hoyt-Cenker-agui cave are located near images of not only birds, but also other animals, and are also part of a complex of signs (Okladnikov, 1972, incl. between p.20 and 21, 22 and 23, 26 and 27). Their purpose is not always clear, so the interpretation of rounded spots and dots next to bird figures as images of eggs is very conditional.

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3. Images of birds on petroglyphs of the Aral-Tolgoi region. Mongolia.

4. A copy of the petroglyph made on micro-tape paper. Palimpsest: Eneolithic images of a bird (center) and a deer (right) are overlaid by a Bronze Age figure of a horse. The Aral Sea-Tolgoi. Mongolia.

tyn-am [Okladnikov, 1981, p. 26] and at the Shavryn-us Neolithic site [Novgorodova, 1984, p.21]. Shell beads and a large egg fragment with a characteristic pattern similar to the Central African one were found by a Soviet-Mongolian paleontological expedition in the 60s of the XX century (Efremov, 1954, p. 10). The most significant argument in favor of identifying the birds painted in the Khoyt-Tsenker-agui cave with ostriches is the discovery of similar style images on the petroglyphic monument of the Aral-Tolgoi (Mongolian Altai) (Fig. 3) [Kubarev, Tseveendorzh, Yakobson, 1999; Tseveendorzh, Kubarev, Yakobson, 2005]. In connection with this discovery, a separate article was published, which examines the image of a bird in the rock art of the Mongolian Altai (Kubarev, 2002). The original images of birds of Hoyt-Tsenker-Aguy and Aral-Tolgoya date back to the Final Neolithic and Early Bronze Age, and individual drawings are convincingly correlated with the visual materials of the Karakol and Samus cultures. A particularly interesting one is the Aral-Tolgoi image of a bird, made in a decorative style (Fig. 3, d; 4). Its long fan-shaped tail is very similar to the tail plumage of birds in the drawings of Karakol and Kalbak-Tash [Ibid., Figs. 1, 15, 16], which indicates one pictorial tradition characteristic of the Bronze Age petroglyphs of the Sayan-Altai and Central Asia.

The argument against the identification of birds depicted on the monuments of Hoyt-Cenker-Agui and Aral-Tolgoi with ostriches is relatively short and thin legs, but if we turn to distant analogies, then, for example, in the frescoes of Calamus in Northern Niger (ca 1200 BC), ostriches are shown with such legs (see fig. 2, c) [Lot, 1984, Table 51]. Although it should be noted that in more ancient drawings (ca. III millennium BC) of the same monument, the legs of birds look rather long and muscular (see Fig. 2, d) [Lot, 1973, tab. Jabbaren]. Similarly, birds are shown in other figures (see Fig. 2, d - f). It is more urgent than determining the species of birds depicted on the monuments of the Mongolian Altai to establish a relatively accurate chronology of the entire complex of such drawings, especially since ostriches lived on the territory of Mongolia not only in the Paleolithic, but also, possibly, in the Neolithic and even in the Early Bronze Age. In general, the problem of dating the oldest ornithomorphic drawings in Central Asia remains debatable. One thing is beyond doubt: the considered images of birds in the petroglyphs of the Mongolian Altai today really look the most archaic in Central Asia.

Ornithomorphic images dating back to the Stone Age are also found on other monuments of Eurasia. Bone ones

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Figurines of waterfowl were found at the Malta Paleolithic site near Irkutsk [Okladnikov. Martynov, 1972, p. 203], and drawings depicting owls (adult and young) - on the walls of the Trois Freres cave in France (Abramova, 1980, p. 88, Fig. 12).

In the third niche of the Hoyt-Cenker-agui cave, which contains a rare image of a two-humped camel, silhouettes of flying birds are painted in dark brown paint at the top of the wall (see Fig. 2, p, i) [Novgorodova, 1984, pp. 26, 29]. The drawings are quite sketchy, so it is impossible to determine the type; perhaps among them there are images of a kite (long-winged, with the corresponding proportions of wings and tail to this predator) and small falcons like a kestrel. One figure - with its wings bent back and tail tapering-is associated with the fast-flying saja, a pigeon-sized bird that lives in steppes and semi-deserts. The appearance of the camel-saja pair* should probably be considered as a sign of the change of relatively wet savanna-like landscapes to dry open steppe spaces.

The bird depicted in the fourth niche (see Fig. 2, k) has relatively short legs, a medium-sized neck, an oval body, and an exaggeratedly large, as far as can be understood from the drawing, open beak, from which a fish hangs (?). Perhaps an ancient artist painted a pelican bird, a century and a half ago lived in large flocks in the water area of the lake. Khara-Us-Nur and was one of the largest and most prominent. Now the pelican is almost not found on this lake, because as a result of anthropogenic impact, its number has decreased to an alarmingly low level and it is listed in the register of rare, endangered species.

In the Late Paleolithic in the Altai-Sayan region, due to the end of glaciation (about 10 thousand years ago), there was a noticeable warming, accompanied by moistening and afforestation of the former tundra steppe. Mammoths became extinct, reindeer migrated to the tundras of the upper mountain belts, and forest dwellers (elk, maral, etc.), on the contrary, became more numerous. The structure of the feathered population of the region also changed, and the density of mountain and forest species increased, but this probably had little effect on the art of the carriers of the Late Paleolithic culture who were engaged in the extraction of large commercial animals.

The Neolithic era (c. VI-V Thys. BC), which replaced the Paleolithic, is characterized by a wide settlement of people, the emergence of cattle breeding, agriculture and pottery production. By this time, the hunters had already mastered the bow and arrow, which made it easier to conduct fishing and significantly expanded the list of animals produced, which also included birds. Later, in the Eneolithic and Early Bronze Age (IV - II millennium BC), pastoral and agricultural life gradually began to displace hunting, and geese, ogars, cranes and other birds began to feed on the grain-sown areas.

Neolithic images of birds are usually found on rock surfaces, in the open air. Among other animal drawings, they are also quite rare, although they exceed the Paleolithic ones in number. The exception is the petroglyphs of Lake Onega, where 37 % of all drawings (322 figures) are made up of images of birds, and 149 of them are interpreted as swans (Fig. 5, a) [Savateev, 1980, p. 143; Mirimanov, 1973, p. 177]. On Neolithic petroglyphs of Fezzan in the Libyan Sahara, among the cut contour and relief, several stylized figures of African animals, shown in dynamics and with a small amount of detail, there is a realistic image of a running ostrich (Fig. 5, b) [Mirimanov, 1973, pp. 202-204, 210].

In Southern Siberia, the most expressive Neolithic drawings depicting birds are found on Tomsk pisanits (Figs. 5, e-i) (Okladnikov and Martynov, 1972; Barinova and Rusakova, 1995). A whole range of birds are represented here, defined up to an order, family, and possibly up to a species. An oval, somewhat pointed outline shows a bird of the order hen from the back, next to it a dot is knocked out, probably indicating, according to the authors, an egg (Fig. 5, c) [Okladnikov and Martynov, 1972, p. 203]. On the Novoromanovskaya scribble, a duck is depicted, also with an egg (Fig. 5, d) [Ibid., Fig. 54]. It is easy to identify a linny goose that has raised its short feathered wings over its back (Fig. 5, d); in the drawing, it is shown as a solid silhouette embossed in profile [Ibid., Fig. 81]. Small strokes (triangles with downward-facing vertices) fill the space in the body contour of the unique image of a fur-legged owl (Fig. 5, f). The head and torso of the figure are clearly outlined by a black stripe [Ibid., Fig.93]. On a single drawing [101] you can recognize a crane (Fig. 5, f), and on the other [Ibid., Fig. 104] by the characteristic bend of the neck - a heron (Fig. 5, h). It was difficult to identify the bird whose image was discovered in 1993 on the Second Novoromanovskaya Pisanitsa (Barinova and Rusakova, 1995, p. 58). Its body proportions are very similar to those of a pelican, and even near the eyes, a light area is clearly visible, corresponding to the naked part on the head of this bird (Fig. 5, i). The beak is massive, noticeably longer than the head, but the leathery throat sac on the lower mantle is not visible.

* A similar rare combination of "camel + bird" is known from the Tsagaan-Salaa petroglyphs in the Mongolian Altai (Jacobson, Kubarev, Tseveendorj, 2001, fig. 283).

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5. Images of birds on Neolithic and Early Bronze Age monuments. a-swan, "Devils nose", Lake Onega; b-running ostrich, Fezzan, Libyan Sahara; c-bird of the order of hens and egg, Tomsk pisanitsa; d-duck and egg, Novoromanovskaya pisanitsa; e-personal goose, Tomsk Pisanitsa; e-furry owl, Tomsk pisanitsa; g - crane, Tomskaya pisanitsa; w - heron, Tomskaya pisanitsa; i-prapelikan (?), the Second Novoromanovskaya pisanitsa; k - bird, Ortaa-Sargol, Tuva; l-diving ducks, Mount Chandaman, Mongolia.

it is shown, and this is one of the characteristic features of the family. It is possible that at that time the now extinct form of prapelikan existed without a leathery sac and probably did not fly (the picture shows a short narrow "wing"above the bird's back). Modern species of pelicans - pink and gray-lived in the south of Western Siberia in the XVIII century. [Rakhilin, 1997, p. 120, Table 5] and in the Trans-Urals in the first half of the XIX century [Blinova, Blinov, 1997, p.39]. Currently, there are only rare individuals in these regions, and sometimes pairs trying to nest. In general, most of the birds depicted in the Tomsk scribbles are so authentic that one never ceases to be surprised by the observation and art of ancient artists, and even doubts creep in about the antiquity of these drawings.

Also, the Neolithic should include a contour, very schematic image of a long-legged, long-necked and long-tailed (?)bird. A crested crane-like bird holding an elongated vertical object in its beak (Fig. 5, k) [Devlet, 1982, Table 7, 1], which is surrounded by animal figures made in a different technique (apparently in a later era), on one of the rock planes of the Ortaa-Sargol tract, near the site of the mountain. Sayan Canyon on the Yenisei River. Most likely, here is a generalized, and maybe even fantastic, image of a bird.

Five images of birds were found on Neolithic petroglyphs in the area of the Khoyt-Tsenker-agui cave and near the city of Khovda (Western Mongolia) among a large number of figures of wild horses, mountain sheep and bulls (204 drawings). Two of them probably represent diving ducks (Fig. 5, l). They are carved into the rocks with a wide, partially filled contour and are quite static, although the movement is still discernible by the barely noticeable tilt of the head (Novgorodova, 1984, Fig. 11, 6).

In the Eneolithic - Bronze Age period, petroglyphs and mobile sculptures, along with traditional images of animals, created a story that unites man and animal and exalts the cult of animal ancestors as the basis for ideas about the transmigration of the souls of the dead into birds and animals, about the transformation of man into the beast god or bird god. Some images clearly express the essence of the myth about the mother as the source of human and natural life, about the origin of people from animals, and often demonstrate the connection of the mother-ancestor with her totemic ancestor, for example, with the capercaillie (Fig. 6, a) [Ibid., pp. 42-44, Fig. 12].

The well-known ornithologist V. K. Rakhilin, who analyzed numerous materials on the avifauna of Russia from different epochs, came to the conclusion that in the Altai in the Neolithic and Bronze Age there lived reed warbler, golden eagle and woodpecker; on the Ob and Yenisei in the period from the Paleolithic to the Iron Age - gulls, geese, ducks, hawks, in the Neolithic and Bronze Age - thrush and nightingale [1997, pp. 23-30].

Birds in Bronze Age images are mostly unrecognizable or completely undetectable. As an exception, we cite drawings on the stele of the Afanasiev culture in Tas-Khazaa in Khakassia (Fig. 6 (b)) [Okladnikov and Martynov, 1972, p. 188, Fig.c]. Here, the head of a bird-like deity, looking towards the mask-mask, is very similar to a seagull, while-

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than, most likely, a silver gull, if you attach importance to a small dash corresponding to a red spot on the mandible of a real bird. It is widely distributed in large rivers and lakes of Southern Siberia and Mongolia. This bird could have been made a totem by the ancient inhabitants of the coasts. The image of the second bird, as if clinging to a vertical wall, with its tail unfurled and wings raised above its back, is very realistic and most of all corresponds to the cuckoo - as the closest to witchcraft. The cuckoo has a light gray head and a brownish-gray dark back and tail, which is indicated by dots and dashes. But in the drawing, these two colors are separated by a ring on the neck, which the real bird does not have. It is possible, however, that the image shows a cuckoo's ringlet, since the drawing shows something like a piece of string tied to it, stretching towards a bird-headed deity with "antennae".

Among the monuments of Okunevsky art, a plate from the Butrakhty ulus on the Tashtyp River in Khakassia is of great interest (Fig. 6, c). Here, birds are depicted above the ochre-painted mask:"...a whole pack. It is difficult to say whether these are ducks or geese or something else, but most likely they are migratory birds that symbolize seasonal cyclicity " (Podolsky, 1997, p. 192, Fig. 35). In our opinion, the plate shows a current of black grouse, easily identified by the arched tail feathers bent in different directions, lowered wings and open beaks. Two black grouse-killer whales in the upper part of the picture are crouched, facing each other. All birds are shown with their necks outstretched - they are excited. The picture of kosachin current is a hymn to spring, awakening nature, the beginning of a new stage of life.

On the slab of an early Bronze Age tomb from Karakol (Altai) next to an anthropomorphic clawed figure (bird woman?) a mountain goat and a bird, possibly a raven (Fig. 6, d; 7) are deeply etched (Kubarev, 1988, Fig. 33).

On a stele from the Askiz River (Khakassia) above the image of a mythical bull-like monster leaning on three-toed clawed feet are figures of two sandpipers made in the graffiti technique (see Fig. 6, d) [Leontiev, 1997, p. 223, Fig. 1]. The birds are shown slightly bent down, ready to take off; one of them already seems to have wings rising above its back. Apparently, the birds represented the "upper world", but why are they sandpipers? Perhaps for the same reason as the black grouse current on the stele from the Butrakhty ulus, according to the saying: "A sandpiper flew in from overseas, brought spring from captivity" (Nadel-Chervinskaya and Chervinsky, 1996, p.323).

The petroglyph complex located in the Tsagaan-Salaa and Baga-Oygur river valleys (Mongolian Altai) is dominated by images of eagles, swans, ducks and geese (Figs. 8, 9). Some drawings are characterized by a realistic direction (birds soaring in the sky in a flock), while others are characterized by a mythological one (plot compositions with different colors). involving birds, horses, deer, pack bulls, and humans). A certain cultural-historical (possibly semantic) connection

6. Images of birds on petroglyphs and stelae of the Eneolithic-Bronze Age. a -capercaillie and a woman (totemic ancestor), Mongolia; b-cuckoo (indicated by one arrow), head of a silver gull (two arrows) at the anthropomorphic figure, Afanasiev stele in Tas-Khazaa, Khakassia; c-current grouse, Butrakhty, Khakassia; d-raven, mountain goat and anthropomorphic figure, Karakol, Altai; d-sandpipers over a bull-like monster, Askiz, Khakassia; f - cuckoo in flight under the archer's gun, Juramal, Altai; g - eagle-golden eagle, Bizhiktig-Khaya, village. Kyzyl-Mazhalyk; w-kekliki (?), Ovyur III, Tuva (MAE, N I-1732-185).

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7. Image of a "proto-shaman" with bird-like features (arms-wings, feathers on the body and legs, claws on the feet). Fragment of a slab from a burial in Karakol (II millennium BC). Altai.

Figure 8. Profile images of birds on petroglyphs of the Bronze Age and Early Iron Age. Цагаан-Салаа/Бага-Ойгур. Mongolia.

9. Full-face images of birds on petroglyphs of the Bronze Age and Early Iron Age. Цагаан-Салаа/Бага-Ойгур. Mongolia.

Mongolian images of birds can be traced with similar style drawings in Okunev-Karakol art and in the visual arts of the Samus community of Western Siberia. First, it is a formal but striking similarity of the compared images of birds with outstretched and as if lowered wings [Kubarev, 1988, Tables I, 6; Table II, 7; Vadetskaya, 1980, Tables LIII, 129]. Secondly, the characteristic interpretation of bodies in the form of an egg-shaped oval, as well as the presence of specially embossed depressions of a rounded or oval shape next to the figures or even inside their outlines (egg symbols?). Such a pictorial technique, as is known, was dictated by the ancient solar cult and cosmogonic ideas about the world egg (Ivanov and Toporov, 1992, p.349). It is typical, for example, for images of birds on Samuska ceramic dishes, the time of existence of which is very short.-

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It is defined by the middle of the second millennium BC [Kosarev, 1981, p. 86, Fig. 80, b, 10].

The Late Bronze Age is characterized by double masks. These are two anthropomorphic images located on top of each other with wings on the sides and a tail at the bottom. They may have been carved on rocks, but they are most often found in works of fine metalplastics (Devlet, 1998, p. 152, Fig. 4). The silhouette of the figures resembles an eagle in flight, but they do not carry any faunal load.

Of the realistic images of the turn of the Bronze Age-the Early Iron Age, perhaps only two scenes of hunting birds with a bow and arrow are of interest. One of them was discovered in the Mongolian Altai (Tsagaan-Salaa III) [Jacobson, Kubarev, Tseveendorj, 2001, fig. 262]. It reflects, perhaps, the usual hunting for a swan (?) (Fig. 10, a), but it seems somewhat strange that the ancient artist depicted a bird much larger in size than the hunter. However, if we assume the mythological nature of the rock miniatures, then this discrepancy will be logical, since mythical birds and animals in many cases are huge and strong. Let us recall at least the legendary Garuda bird, known in ancient Indian mythology as the mount of the god (vahana) Vishnu (Grinzer, 1992, p. 266). In the second, also very concise scene (Juramal), discovered in 1990 in the Altai (Matochkin, 1997, p. 57) and first published in 1992 (Kubarev and Matochkin, 1992, Fig. 49), an archer aims at a large bird (see Fig. 6, f). According to E. P. Matochkin, this is "a feathered predator from the falconidae family. G. G. Sobansky... He defined the bird as a peregrine falcon or saker falcon" [1997, p. 57]. D. V. Cheremisin also believes that in the rock miniature under consideration "an anthropomorphic character shoots a bow at a bird of prey" [1995, p.102, Fig. 4]. However, the bird depicted is more like a cuckoo that has abruptly flown off a branch, with its long and wide tail. D. V. Cheremisin mentions that on the same plane with this composition there are figures of other birds of prey, similar in image style to the well-known Trans-Baikal petroglyphs, but they are not shown in the work cited by us.

Bird images are very rarely found on individual deer stones in Mongolia (see Fig. 10, b), which date back to the Late Bronze Age (Volkov, 2002, Tables 109, 125). Probably, at the same time, there is a rare drawing for petroglyphs of Khar-Chuluu (Mongolian Altai) depicting a standing bird with long legs and neck (see Fig. 10, c). The round eye is made in a technique typical for images of deer of the so-called Mongolian-Trans-Baikal type. Other images of birds (see Figures 10, d - e) should also be considered rare on the same monument; some of them (see Figures 10, e) resemble ulars (mountain turkeys) or even polar partridges, which still live in the Altai Mountains.

In a small composition on the Tsagaan Salaa monument, a large bird of prey with outstretched wings attacks a fish (see Fig. In the petroglyphs of the Mongolian Altai, such a plot is found for the first time. But in the Scythian art of Eurasia, the scene of fish being tormented by a bird of prey is quite widely known on objects of various purposes dating back to the VI-IV centuries BC (Korolkova, 1998, Fig. 1, 18]. On the Tsagaan-Salaa petroglyph, the bird is shown at the moment of a rapid dive, preceding the act of tormenting. In Scythian drawings, she holds

10. Images of birds on petroglyphs of the Bronze Age and Early Iron Age in Mongolia. a, w-Tsagaan-Salaa / Baga-Oygur; b-olennyi kamen in Omggiin Holiyn ovort; c-e-Har-Salaa/Har-Chuluu.

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the fish is in its claws and bites it in the head. The similarity is that on the petroglyph the bird is directed with its beak towards the fish's head, i.e. it is in the same position as in the Scythian images of birds tormenting fish from the head. The attribution of the considered plot to the Scythian period should still be considered preliminary, because in the petroglyphs of the Mongolian Altai there are a number of stylistically similar images of birds of prey included in compositions dating back to the Bronze Age. The question of the dating and origin of the "bird + fish" plot cannot be solved unambiguously and due to its uniqueness in the petroglyphs of the Mongolian Altai. In addition, there are earlier parallels to this story in Chinese antiquities dating back to the late Shang era - the end of the second millennium BC [Ibid., p. 167]. Another interesting analogy is that a small stone in Xinjiang depicts a crane or pelican pecking at a fish (Aertai yanhu yishu, 1998, Fig. 95). Judging by the carved design above them - a goat figurine in the Altaic animal style-the scene can be dated to the "Arjan-Mayemir" period of the Early Scythian era.

Probably, the images of a golden eagle on the monument of Bizhiktig-Khaya near the village belong to the Scythian period. 6, f) [Potapov R. L., 1957, p. 430], as well as, possibly, two mountain hens-kekliks, taken in the original source presumably for hazel grouses (see Fig. 6, h) [Potapov R. L., 1958, p. 386], on petroglyphs of Ovyur III in Tuva.

Images of birds in the art of early and medieval nomads

In the Early Iron Age (VIII - III centuries BC), when tribes of Iranian-speaking nomads penetrated the territory of Southern Siberia and Mongolia, the so-called Scythian-Siberian cultural and historical unity developed in Central Asia. In the decorative arts of closely related nomadic tribes, a special animal style was developed (Gryaznov, 1958, pp. 12-13). The main objects of the image, as in previous epochs, were a variety of wild animals that lived in the Eurasian expanses. At the same time, characters in different regions (Tuva, Altai, Mongolia, etc.) differ in their local forms and plots. Animal-style images are preserved in the form of petroglyphs, objects cast from bronze, carved from stone, horn, bone and wood. They were placed on weapons, horse harness and various decorations. Hoofed animals were usually reproduced, and quite often predatory animals, including tigers and panthers, as well as birds, mainly eagles. The Scythian-Siberian animal style is characterized by the image of heads as symbols of the animal itself, as well as the use of expressive ornamentation techniques in the lines of the silhouette or on individual parts of the figure [Weinstein, 1974, pp. 17-23]. Stylization makes it difficult to identify animals and birds, but often detailed detailing and emphasizing features that are unique to individual species favor fairly accurate attribution of the images in question.

The image of an eagle was especially popular in the Scythian-Siberian art of the peoples of Central Asia. Among the various ornaments of the nomad costume, gold stamped plaques are most often found, where the bird is shown soaring with unfolded wings and tail (Fig. 11) [Ibid., 1974, Fig. 17, 4, 8; Kubarev, 1991, Tables XLIII, 6, 7; XLV, 14]. The finds with images of birds from the recently investigated burials of the upper social stratum of nomads (Arzhan-2 mound in Tuva)are very expressive: a gold openwork patch in the form of an eagle's head on a woman's headdress and a large buckle with bird protoms [Chugunov, Parzinger, Nagler, 2002, p. 120, 122].

The image of a bird in the art of the early nomads of Altai was analyzed in detail by V. D. Kubarev and D. V. Cheremisin [1984]. In the collection of bird images presented by the authors, extremely expressive and realistic figures of soaring eagles stand out in particular (Figs. 12, 13). Their sacred essence is emphasized by carved spirals on the wings and covering the figures with gold leaf. Animal - style items originating from Altai mounds, including ornithomorphic items (Figures 14-19), are correlated by the authors with the corresponding characters of petroglyphs in Altai and neighboring regions. The mentioned work describes eagles, vultures, a mythical griffin with the body of a cat predator and the head of an eagle or vulture; a rooster, the first to see the dawn of a new day; waterfowl (geese, swans, loons, ducks) - the only animals that are viable in the four structural elements of the universe: in the air, on the ground, on water and under water [Ibid., pp. 95-98]. Among the figures given by the authors, only a kite can be identified relatively reliably (up to the genus) [Ibid., Fig. 2, 10].

Bronze objects with images of the heads of a bird of prey (vulture?) found in a looted mound in the Balyk-Sook tract are also of considerable interest (Fig. 20). Their purpose is unknown, but it can be assumed that they served for some ritual purposes when performing a funeral rite by carriers of the Pazyryk culture of Altai.

Rare finds include a bronze object found by V. V. Krivdik in a steppe depression south of the city of Kyzyl. This is a cast hollow product in the form of a bird's head with a small beak.

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11. Gold plaques in the form of an eagle figurine. Kurgan 20. Yustyd XII. Pazyryk culture of Altai (V-III centuries BC).

13. Wooden eagle figurine. Kurgan 2. Ulandryk IV Pazyryk culture of Altai (V-III centuries BC). a-front view, b-top view.

15. Wooden duck figurine (?) painted in red. Kurgan 12. Ulandryk P. Pazyryk culture of Altai (V-III centuries BC).

12. Wooden eagle figurine wrapped in gold leaf. Kurgan 9. Yustyd XII. Pazyryk culture of Altai (V-III centuries BC).

14. Fragment of a wooden diadem with images of swans swimming. Kurgan 2. Ulandryk IV Pazyryk culture of Altai (V-III centuries BC).

16. Round bronze plaques and a rooster figurine wrapped in gold leaf. Kurgan 3. Balyk-Sook I. Pazyryk culture of Altai (V-III centuries BC).

The eyes are shown as through holes surrounded by relief rollers (Fig. 21, a). The bird's head, made with great skill, was probably part of the pommel. It is made in the image of not a bird of prey, but a capercaillie, and, judging by the relative short-beak, a stone capercaillie. In the present

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Figure 1-7. Wooden decoration of the bridle in the form of the heads of fantastic vultures. Kurgan 2. Ulandryk IV. Pazyryk culture of Altai (V-III centuries BC).

18. The tip of a wooden psalter in the form of the head of a bird of prey. Kurgan 2. Ulandryk IV. Pazyryk culture of Altai (V-III centuries BC).

19. Wooden decoration of the bridle in the form of the head of a fantastic vulture. Kurgan 2. Ulandryk IV Pazyryk culture of Altai (V-III centuries BC).

20. Bronze objects of unknown purpose with images of vulture heads. Kurgan 3. Balyk-Sook I. Pazyryk culture of Altai (V-III centuries BC).

21. Images of birds in the Scythian era and in ethnographic time. a -bronze head of stone capercaillie, Suk-Pak, Tuva; b-birds (grouse?) in the multi-figure composition on the stone N 40 of the Aldy-Mozaga monument, Sayan Canyon of the Yenisei, Tuva; c-a crane on a rock drawing in the vicinity of Khovd, Mongolia; d-iconic wooden figures of birds (from top to bottom: duck, capercaillie, duck, ular), Arzhan-Khem, Tuva; e-crane in the drawing a rock-engraved hunting scene, Tuekta, Altai.

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For a long time, this bird of the order hen lives mainly in the larch taiga and sparse forests of Siberia to the east of the Yenisei and Lake Baikal (Flint et al., 1968, pp. 178-179). In Tuva, the stone capercaillie is found only in the south-east, but judging by the described find, in former times its habitat could have been much wider - including part of the Tuva Basin.

In the Hunno-Sarmatian era (II century BC - V century AD) in the Sayan-Altai, the predominant subjects of petroglyphs were hunting scenes and armed horsemen, and domesticated bulls, horses, camels and dogs were more often reproduced from animals. There are few images of birds; the most typical of them, very stylized and indeterminate, are represented on the repeatedly described stone N 40 of the Aldy-Mozaga monument (Fig. 21, b) (Devlet, 1998, Table 17). It is possible that in the upper right corner of the composition and in its central part between the figures of deer running in different directions, grouse are depicted, and the first one is shown flying vertically up at the moment of the highest excitement during the current. The proportions of the second bird, captured in flight, also correspond to the black grouse - it is also "crested", but the tail does not show the characteristic diverging ends of the tail feathers; perhaps this detail was overlooked by the artist himself or during subsequent copying. The silhouette of a flowing black grouse is a symbol of spring, the beginning of a new life cycle. Therefore, it is probably no accident that it is placed at the top of a unique composition.

Eagles in the Hunno-Sarmatian era were often depicted as carriers of the Syynchurek culture described by SI. By Weinstein [1974]. As a rule, they are shown soaring, with their wings outstretched and their head turned to the side [Ibid., Fig. 30]. Two relatively clear images of cranes are known: in the rock art in the vicinity of Khovda (Fig. 21, c) [Novgorodova, 1984, Fig. 63] and in the hunting scene on Tuekta petroglyphs in the Altai Mountains (Fig. 21, d) [Miklashevich and Belousova, 2000, p. 18]. The last scene is obviously made in the ancient Turkic era or even in the ethnographic time.

Falconry and hunting birds

In later historical times, with the advent of writing, information about avifauna became more diverse and richer. Among them, materials about hunting and hunting birds predominated. We learned to hunt from childhood. For example, among the Huns of Central Asia, "a boy, as soon as he can ride a ram, shoots birds and small animals from a bow, and, after growing up a little, gets foxes and hares and uses them for food" (Istoriya Tuva, 2001, p. 55).

About the nomads of the 7th - 8th centuries, when Tuva was part of the First Turkic Khaganate, written sources report that their hunters, being on horseback, skillfully wielded a bow, they had "condor-feathered arrows" with which they shot eagles (see: [Kyzlasov, 1969, p.47]). Bearded lambs are called condors here - "eagles from the genus of large eagles with a yellow head and red eyes, whose feathers are used on the edge of arrows" (Bichurin, 1950, p. 98). In those days, the density of lamb was probably much higher than today.

The following materials indicate the habitat of falcons in the Altai-Sayan region, their coloring and use in hunting. So, in July 843, the second Khakass embassy headed by General Wan-u-He arrived in the Chinese capital, which donated 10 pairs of falcons [Kyzlasov, 1969, p. 94]. In 1207, the Kyrgyz noyons, who then ruled in the territory of modern Tuva, "expressed their submission and beat Genghis Khan with a brow and white gyrfalcons-shinkhot, white geldings and black sables" [Ibid., p. 132]. In the Jilijis lands of Kian-Kian-Zhou (i.e., Khem-Khemchik), there were "white and black hunting falcons. < ... > Specially bred hunting falcons were used for summer hunting, which together with horses could be used for tribute offerings or for sale" [Ibid., p. 165]. The best gyrfalcons, along with furs and horses, were purchased from the Tuvans by Central Asian merchants, who used the birds for falconry, which was then widespread. To the Iranian ruler of the early 14th century. Gazan Khan received "long-range and hunting falcons" among other offerings from the Sayan-Altai Highlands [Ibid., p. 170].

Hunting with hunting birds was then widespread enough, and not as entertainment, but for the purpose of extracting meat from animals and birds. The missionary Guillaume Roubruk, who made a trip to Western Mongolia in 1253-1255, wrote that local residents "give mice with long tails to birds: falcons, gyrfalcons, golden eagles, which they keep in large numbers and hunt with them to get a significant part of their food" [Travel..., 1957]. The Venetian traveler Marco Polo also reported about eagles specially trained by the Mongols for hunting in the 13th century: "The great khan has a lot of them... eagles trained to catch wolves, foxes, antelopes, and fallow deer... " [Kniga..., 1955, pp. 115-116].

Falconry is also depicted in petroglyphs of the Mongolian Altai. In the composition we copied in the valley of the high-altitude Khar-Salaa river, the figure of a horseman holding a falcon or eagle in one hand and a stack or a small mace in the other - a prestigious attribute of a noble warrior - is extremely interesting (Fig. 22). On the same monument, images of two birds of prey are also present in another scene

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22. Scene of a corral hunt. The arrow shows a rider with a hunting bird on his left hand. Petroglyphs of Har Salaa. Mongolia. Ancient Turkic era (VII-VIII centuries).

9, b). Drawings depicting falconry, which are very similar in composition, are also found in petroglyphs of Altai, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan (Elin and Nekrasov, 1994, Fig. 1; Maksimova, Ermolaeva, Maryashev, 1985, il. 80; Klyashtorny, 2001, p. 214]. The plot of hunting with a tamed bird is repeated on separate objects from Central Asia (Manylov, 1979, Fig. 1; Antiquities of Tajikistan, 1985, ill. 435].

Perhaps the hunting bird is also depicted on some ancient Turkic sculptures of Semirechye and Eastern Kazakhstan. As a rule, it is shown sitting on the right hand of a person (Sher, 1966, Tables XXIII, sculptures 105-109). In Mongolia, on a memorial monument erected in memory of Tekesh, a bird, possibly a falcon, is depicted in the upper right corner of the monument (Figure 23).

It is interesting that even now on the high-altitude summer gardens of Kazakh shepherds of Mongolia, near the yurt or even in the yurt itself, you can see tamed eagles. The tradition of hunting small game with the help of hunting birds, presumably, has not been interrupted since ancient times.

The image of a bird in Siberian shamanism

Some data on the birds of the Sayano-Altai region in the Middle Ages and up to the beginning of the last century can be found in the materials on shamanism, which was widespread among the peoples of Siberia in the recent past. The main idea of shamanism was the need for a person to communicate with spirits, according to beliefs that settled the surrounding space in ancient times. The intermediary in this communication is a shaman, allegedly endowed with extraordinary abilities. It is associated with patron spirits and helper spirits. Especially noteworthy is the shaman's connection with sacred birds - inhabitants of the celestial sphere. The feather headdress, which is also associated with the rays of the sun, is worn by anthropomorphic characters

23. Memorial monument dedicated to Tekesh. In the upper-right corner is a bas-relief image of a falcon or dove. Asgat Mongolia. Ancient Turkic era (VII-VIII centuries)

24. Polychrome images of gods or" proto-shamans " with feather headdresses and bird wings in their hands. Karakol. Altai. Karakol culture (II millennium BC).

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(proto-shamans?) ancient paintings of Karakol (Kubarev, 1988, fig. 19). 24). In terms of the origin and evolution of Siberian shamanism, the most interesting image is that of the most ancient "shamaness" of Mongolia with three-toed bird claws on her feet (Jacobson, Kubarev, Tseveendorj, 2001, fig. 891), which has a direct and indisputable analogy in the art of Karakol culture. cultures of the Altai Bronze Age (see Fig. 7) [Kubarev, 1988, fig. 33; 2001, fig. 6, 3]. And, as it seems to us, in direct connection with these ancient drawings are preserved in the myths of the Mongols, Altaians and Tuvans ideas about the first shaman - a woman. Ethnographers should obviously pay attention to the prospects of a comparative study of the clothing of ancient "shamanesses" in petroglyphs with the ritual costumes of Siberian shamans. After all, it is known that the peoples of the Sayano-Altai had a special type of shamanic costume, distinguished by its cut and design. It represented a bird [Prokofieva, 1971, p. 62], with the help of which a shaman (shamanka) allegedly climbed to the top of mountains and made a journey in the universe [Potapov L. P., 1991, p.210-215]. Perhaps it is this costume or its likeness that conveys another Bronze Age drawing found among the petroglyphs of the Tsagaan-Salaa River valley (Mongolian Altai). It shows the horns of a bull on a crossbar and the wings of a bird lowered down [Jacobson, Kubarev, Tseveendorj, 2001, fig. 269]. Even more expressive images of women in "bird-like" clothing were found on rocks at the mouth of the Karagem River in the Russian Altai (Matochkin, 1997, Figs. 1, 5, 6).

According to the beliefs of the peoples of Siberia, many birds were considered spirits of the upper world, but some of them (loons) could communicate with both the middle (terrestrial) and lower (underwater, underground) [Basilov, 1984, p. 31]. The Khakass people used to worship both the forces of nature and plants and animals, including the magpie and the falcon (Kizlasov, 1969, p. 128). Totems, especially birds, played an important role in the life and art of the taiga West Siberian aborigines: the Ob Ugrians worshipped the eagle, crane, gogol, and owl; the Selkups worshipped the eagle, cedar tree, crane, capercaillie, swan, raven, and hawk (Grumm-Grzhimailo, 1926, pp. 40-41). According to our observations, the special significance of the eagle, swan, duck, owl, owl, cedar and some other birds remains in the totemic and animistic representations of modern Tuvinian reindeer herders...the shaman surrounds himself in the Uriankhai region with an environment that aims to raise the mental mood of those who turn to his help... Items of shamanic worship are hung up... in a strictly defined order... above the shamanic tambourine are carved wooden images of birds-messengers of spirits - the cuckoo and the hawk, painted in black.. idols are hung on the right side, including the skins of eagles, owls, and owls, and capercaillie feathers are tied to the bowstring, etc. "[Ibid., p. 143]. The shamanic costume itself, with a headdress topped with eagle, raven, or capercaillie feathers, embodied the image of a bird (Vainshtein, 1974, p. 215). The shaman's assistant was usually a raven; sometimes seven swans flew around the world and collected information about the fate of people. Among the Tojin shamans, helpers could take images of various animals and birds to fulfill their will.:



If we turn into a raven, we'll run smoothly,
Turning into a hawk, we watch from above.
Turning into an eagle, we watch from all sides.


An algysh performed during the shaman's kamlaniye [Vainshtein, 1961, p. 185].

Sculptural figures of birds made of unpainted wood were installed according to the instructions of shamans on the passes near the sanctuaries with "ovaa", at the mineral springs" arzhaanov " and in some other sacred places. Among the cult figures in Western Tuva, there are often images of ular, in Eastern Tuva - ducks, capercaillie and other birds that live in mountain taiga and lake-marshy areas (Zabelina, 1975). It was believed that the rite of installation of sacred figurines serves to appease spirits, and is also intended to promote the reproduction of depicted birds and animals [Vainshtein, 1974, p. 188].

During kamlaniyah, the shaman often addressed birds and other animals in the so-called algyshs, rhythmically performed to the sound of a tambourine (Kenin-Lopsan, 1987, pp. 20-23; Zabelina and Zabelin, 2001). He could praise the bird "chashkaadai" (kamenka-dancer) for its fine hearing, the cuckoo for its precious voice, the nightingale for its night songs, the hazel grouse for a sunny day; wish a married girl to be elegant like a woodpecker, elegant like a steppe partridge; a young man to be proud like an eagle, and sing like a nightingale. The shaman's owl is vigilance at night, the falcon is a clever and bold scout during the day, the magpie is the first to learn about the approach of trouble, the kite is the embodiment of a constant threat, the raven, the shaman's favorite, is his sharp scout [Zabelina and Zabelin, 2001, p.197; Diakonova, 1981].

The" avifaunal component " of the shamanic cult was based on constant observations and a systematic inventory of natural relationships.

Conclusion

In the myths of the peoples of the world, birds are indispensable participants, and often the main characters. They serve

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symbols of the sky, sun, thunder, fertility, life and death, as well as performing various functions in the ritual sphere and funerary practice. Images of birds in petroglyphs, as well as mobile art in Southern Siberia and Central Asia are no exception. They act as a kind of classifiers in the universal sign system of zoomorphic images, allowing us to decipher the ideological content of the myth [Kubarev, 2002, pp. 78-79].

Numerous archaeological and ethnographic sources, written testimonies and other materials indicate that birds occupied a worthy place in the diverse interests of people. In the Paleolithic and Neolithic, they could have been an additional object of fishing, in the Eneolithic-the Bronze Age, in addition, they began to play a certain role in animistic ideas, which was further strengthened with the appearance and development of shamanism among the peoples of Siberia.

The analysis of a number of sources has shown that they can give an idea of the avifauna of individual regions. In our opinion, the data on the Upper Paleolithic ostriches (Mongolia and Transbaikalia), the Neolithic mysterious pelican-like bird (Tom basin), and the Scythian stone capercaillie (now part of the Tuva basin) are promising for further study. Early literary sources helped to form an idea of the scale of falconry that existed in the early Middle Ages, and shamanic practice and folklore - about a peculiar form of accumulation of knowledge about birds and animals.

List of literature

Abramova Z. A. In the caves of Aryezha / / Zveri v kamne. Novosibirsk: Nauka Publ., 1980, pp. 62-95.

Aertai yanhu yishu (The art of Altai rock paintings) / Liu Qingyan, Liu Hong. - B. M.: Shandong yishu chubanyne, 1998. - 59 p., 127 ill. (in Chinese).

Barinova E. S., Rusakova I. D. Novye petroglyphi na Tom ' [New petroglyphs in the Tom Region] / / Obozrenie rezul'tatov polevykh i laboratornykh issledovaniy arkheologov, etnografov i antropologov Sibiri i Dalnego Vostoka v 1993-Novosibirsk: Izd-vo IAEgSORAN, 1995. - pp. 58-61.

Basilov V. N. Izbranniki dukhov [Selected Spirits], Moscow: Politizdat, 1984, 208 p.

Bichurin N. Ya. (Iakinf). Collection of information about the peoples who lived in Central Asia in ancient times. - M.; L.: Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1950. - Vol. 1. - 230 p.

Blinova T. K., Blinov V. N. Birds of the Trans-Urals: Forest-steppe and steppe. Novosibirsk: Nauka Publ., 1997, vol. 1, 269 p.

Pamyatniki okunevskoy kul'tury [Monuments of Okunev culture], Moscow: Nauka Publ., 1980, pp. 37-86 (text), pp. 123-147 (tab.).

Vainshtein S. I. Tuvintsy-todzhintsy: Istoriko-etnograficheskie ocherki [Tuvinians-Todzhintsy: Historical and ethnographic Essays], Moscow: Publishing House of Eastern Literature, 1961, 218 p.

Vainshtein, S. I. the history of the folk art of Tuva. Moscow: Nauka Publ., 1974, 223 p.

Volkov V. V. Olennye kamony Monoglii [Olenny stones of Mongolia], Moscow: Nauch. mir Publ., 2002, 248 p.

Grintser P. A. Garuda / / Myths of the peoples of the world, Moscow: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1992, vol. 2, pp. 266-267.

Grumm-Grzhimailo G. E. Western Mongolia and the Uran-Khai Region: An anthropological and ethnographic sketch of these countries. - L.: RGO, 1926. - Vol. 3, issue 1. - 413 p.

Gryaznoe M. P. Drevneye iskusstvo Altay [Ancient art of Altai]. Hermitage, 1958. - 95 p.

Antiquities of Tajikistan: Exhibition Catalog. - Dushanbe: Donish, 1985. - 344 p.

Devlet M. A. Petroglyphs on the nomadic path, Moscow: Nauka Publ., 1982, 128 p.

Devlet M. A. Petroglyphs at the bottom of the Sayan Sea (Mount Aldy-Mozaga). - M.: Monuments of historical thought, 1998. - 288 p.

Diakonova V. P. Tuvan shamans and their social role in society, Problemy istorii obshchestvennogo soznaniya aborigenov Sibiri (po materialam vtoroy poloviny XIX-nachala XX V.), Problemy istorii obshchestvennogo soznaniya aborigenov Sibiri (po materialam vtoroy poloviny XIX - nachala XX v.), Nauka Publ., 1981, pp. 123-164.

Elin V. N., Nekrasov V. A. Graffiti s izobrazhimen okhotnikov u s. Ust-Kan [Graffiti with the image of hunters near the village of Ust-Kan]. Gorno-Altaisk: Gorno-Altaisk State University, 1994, pp. 116-122.

Efremov I. A. Paleontological research in the Mongolian People's Republic: Preliminary results of the expeditions of 1946, 1948 and 1949 / / Collection of works on Paleontology of the Mongolian People's Republic: Tr. of the Mongolian Commission, Moscow: Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1954, issue 59, pp. 3-32.

Yeshelkin I. I. O naskalnykh izobrazheniyakh nekotorykh zhivotnykh v gorakh Yugo-Vostochnogo Altay [On rock images of some animals in the mountains of the Southeastern Altai].

Zabelina G. A. Nekotorye kul'tovye izobrazheniya ptitsy iz urochishche Arzhan-Khem [Some cult images of birds from the Arzhan-Khem tract]. 17. - p. 260-262.

Zabelina G. A., Zabelin V. I. Appeals to birds in the algyshes of Tuvan shamans // Natural conditions, history and culture of Western Mongolia and adjacent regions: Tez. dokl. V International Scientific conference (Khovd, Mongolia, September 20-24, 2001). Tomsk: Publishing House of the Tomsk State University, 2001. pp. 196-197.

Ivanov V. V., Toporov V. N. Ptitsii [Birds] / / Myths of the peoples of the world. Moscow: Sov. encikl., 1992, vol. 2, pp. 346-349.

History of Tuva: In 2 volumes - 2nd ed., reprint. Ed. by SI. Vainshtein and M. H. Mannayoola. Novosibirsk: Nauka Publ., 2001, vol. 1, 367 p.

Kenii-Lopsan M. B. Obryadovaya praktika i fol'klor tuvskogo shamanstva [Ritual practice and folklore of Tuvan shamanism]. Late XIX-early XX centuries-Novosibirsk: Nauka Publ., 1987, 164 p.

Klyashtorny S. G. Vsadniki Kochkorskoy doliny [Riders of the Kochkor Valley]. St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg State University, 2001, pp. 213-215.

The Book of Marco Polo, Moscow: Geogr. lit. Publishing House, 1955, 376 p.

Korolkova E. F. Iconography of the image of a bird of prey in the Scythian animal style of the VI-IV centuries BC.: History and culture of the Ancient and Middle Ages-

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St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg State University, 1998, Issue 4, pp. 166-177.

Kosarev M. F. Bronzovyi vek Zapadnoy Sibiri [The Bronze Age of Western Siberia], Moscow: Nauka Publ., 1981, 279 p.

Kosarev M. F. Zapadnaya Sibir ' v drevnosti [Western Siberia in ancient Times], Moscow: Nauka Publ., 1984, 234 p.

Kubarev V. D. Ancient paintings of Karakol. Novosibirsk: Nauka Publ., 1988, 173 p. (in Russian)

Kubarev V. D. Kurgany Yustyda [Mounds of Yustyda]. Novosibirsk: Nauka Publ., 1991, 190 p. (in Russian)

Kubarev V. D. Plots of hunting and war in the ancient Turkic petroglyphs of Altai / / Archeology, Ethnography and Anthropology of Eurasia. - 2001. - N 4. - p. 95-107.

Kubarev V. D. The image of a bird in petroglyphs of the Mongolian Altai // Northern Eurasia in the Bronze Age: Space, Time, Culture. Barnaul: Alt. State University, 2002, pp. 77-81.

Kubarev V. D., Matochkin E. P. Petroglyphs of Altai. Novosibirsk: IAEg SB RAS, 1992, 123 p. (in Russian)

Kubarev V. D., Tseveendorzh D., Yakobson E. Petroglyphs of the Aral-Tolgoi / / Problems of Archeology, Ethnography, and Anthropology of Siberia and adjacent territories. Novosibirsk: Publishing House of IAEt SB RAS, 1999. - P. 407-410.

Kubarev V. D., Cheremisin D. V. Obraz ptitsii v iskusstve rannykh kochevnikov Altay [The image of a bird in the art of early Altai nomads]. Novosibirsk: Nauka Publ., 1984, pp. 86-100.

Kyzlasov L. R. Istoriya Tuva v sredniye veka [History of Tuva in the Middle Ages], Moscow: Moscow State University Press, 1969, 211 p.

Leont'ev N. V. Stela s reki Askiz (obraz muzhchego dezhestva v okunevskom izobrazhitel'nom iskusstve) [Stele from the Askiz River (image of a male deity in Okunev's Fine Arts)]. Art. Anthropology. St. Petersburg: Petro-RIF Publ., 1997, pp. 222-236.

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The article was submitted to the Editorial Board on 18.07.05.

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