Libmonster ID: UZ-1388

Moscow: Institute of Archeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 2014. 164 p., ill. ISBN 978-5-94375-165-3

"The link of time has broken up." A. I. Kroneberg's translation of Shakespeare's brilliant "Time is out of Joint" ("Time is incoherent") is immediately recalled when you read the book by the archaeologists-orientalists Gennady Andreevich Koshelenko, Rauf Magomedovich Munchaev and Vasif Abidovich Gaibov. The main message of the authors is to use the tragic example of Afghanistan during the civil war to remind readers "how fragile the past is, how easy it is to destroy the history of the people" (p. 162).

The collective monograph consists of an introduction, three parts - "Discoveries", "Tragedy", "Problems" - and a conclusion. This is accompanied by a list of abbreviations. The book is richly illustrated with color photographs and diagrams of ancient settlements, dwellings, and temples.

In the introduction, the authors define the task of the book- " to tell about the archeology of Afghanistan, about the monuments discovered here, about the people who made these discoveries. But it will also be a story about how monuments and works of art were destroyed in the fire of the civil war " (p. 7). With this statement of the problem, it is logical for the authors to recognize that their work is not a textbook on the archeology of Afghanistan. But, I must say right away, their work is the first detailed historiographical study of the country's archeology in Russian.

The first part opens with chapter I, " Strange Beginnings." It tells about the activities of the English intelligence officer and archaeologist Charles Masson (real name-James Lewis), who is considered to be a pioneer of the archeology of Afghanistan. He undertook the first research of the Buddhist cave complex in Bamiyan, which included two colossal Buddha statues that were blown up by the Taliban in 2001, despite protests from the international community. I have collected a large collection of coins. He made an inventory of all the finds obtained during the excavations of a number of Buddhist stupas in Afghanistan. They drew up topographic plans with localization of the identified monuments. Thanks to the work of Elizabeth Errington, it turned out that with the light hand of the luminaries of British historiography, James Prinsep and Horatio Wilson, the role of Masson was greatly downplayed. The archaeologist's unpublished handwritten legacy shows that he was far ahead of his time.

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Chapter II, "The DAFA Era," describes the activities of French archaeologists. It was the French archaeological delegation to Afghanistan (Délégation archéologique française en Afghanistan) that made the greatest contribution to the study of its archaeology. The authors emphasize that "the creation of DAFA was dictated primarily by political motives" (p. 25). It is rather strange that the chapter does not specify the year of foundation of the Delegation-1922. It was subordinate to the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Its first director was the Gandhara art connoisseur Alfred Fouche1. The circumstances of the origin of the Delegation, the unsuccessful excavations of the city of Bal-ha (ancient Bactra) and the reasons for their failure are discussed in Section 1 "The Greco-Bactrian mirage". Fouche was unable to find Greco-Bactrian monuments, as he had no excavation experience, no collaborators (other than his wife), and no comparative data from other sites. Such data were obtained after Fouche finished his work in Balkh. Failure forced him to call Greco-Bactrian art a "mirage".

§ 2 " The transition period (from A. Fouche to D. Schlumberger)" describes the time from 1925 (when the first director of the Delegation left for his homeland) to 1945, when Daniel Schlumberger was appointed as the new director after the end of World War II. Major achievements of the period include the discovery of sculpture in Hadda by Jules Barthou, and objects of Mediterranean, Indian and Chinese imports in Begram, excavated by Joseph Aken, the second director of the Delegation. In Begram, Aken found glass vessels from the Mediterranean, Indian ivory products, and Chinese lacquers. The authors also note the work of Roman Hirshman, who published in a series of Notes of the Delegation a report on the excavations in Begram (Aken died during the war) [Ghirshman, 1946]. The Afghan government opposed Hirschman's involvement in political, or rather intelligence, activities in the country and banned him from returning to Afghanistan. Therefore, Hirschman never became the director of the Delegation.

Section 3 "D. Schlumberger: from Mundigak to Lashkari Bazaar" is dedicated to the activities of the post-war Delegation. It was under Schlumberger that the archaeological study of the Muslim culture of Afghanistan began. Palaces of Ghaznavids and Ghurids ' residences with remarkable frescoes depicting the Sultan's guards were excavated (p. 44, fig. 14). Schlumberger discovered a Kushan dynastic sanctuary in Surkh Kotal. The inscriptions found there are written in the Bactrian language, previously unknown to science.

Section 4 "Paul Bernard and the discovery of Central Asian Hellenism" tells about the sensational excavations of the ancient settlement of Ai-Khanum, located at the confluence of the Kokchi River with the Amu Darya. In Central Asia, a Greek city was discovered and studied in detail, founded around 300 BC and died under the blows of nomads around 145 BC. Soviet archaeologists G. A. Koshelenko and R. M. Munchaev (in 1965), I. T. Kruglikova and B. A. Litvinsky (in 1967) took part in the excavations. The archaeological study of Ai Khanum continued until 1978-the beginning of the civil war. The palace, the arsenal, the gymnasium, the treasury, the heroon of the founder of the city, the main city temple (a temple with ledged niches), a number of dwellings, and a temple outside the city were excavated. The city's architecture shows Eastern influences, but the Greek character of the city is undeniable.

Section 5, "The Last Days" , describes the exploratory study of the archaeological sites of Eastern Bactria by the group of Jean-Claude Gardin, Director of DAFA in 1980-1982.2. At his initiative, the French Foreign Ministry stopped funding the Ai-Khanum excavations in favor of exploratory research. During the civil war, Ai Khanum was almost destroyed. Therefore, the authors believe that the French officials under the influence of Garden "made a huge mistake", since the exploration of monuments can be carried out at any time, and "the excavations of Ai Khanum, if they are ever resumed, will never give the information that they could have given" (p. 63).

1 Interestingly, Fouche was the director in 1905-1907, and earlier, in 1901-1902, the acting director of the French School of the Far East (Écolle française d'Extrême-Orient). This famous school was established in 1898-1901 and was under the dual subordination of the Governor-General of Indochina (at that time it was the future President of France, Paul Doumer) and the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles Lettres [Clémentin-Ojha, Manguin, 2007, p. 18; http://www.efeo.fr/biographies/notices/foucher.htm]. The participation of this French organization in political events is indicated, for example, by the fact that Claude-Eugene Maitre, who became director after Fouche, published a detailed article "The Origins of the Russo-Japanese conflict" as early as 1904 [Maitre, 1904, p. 499-522]. [www.persee.fr; http://www.efeo.fr/biographies/notices/maitre.htm].

2 J. K. Garden was a theorist of archaeology. See: [Garden, 1983].

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The main results of the Delegation led by Garden were the compilation of an archaeological map of Afghanistan and reconstruction of the history of irrigation in Eastern Bactria from the 3rd millennium BC to the Mongol conquest of the XIII century.

Section 6 "Some results and attempts at revival" describes the resumption of the Delegation's work in 2002. "New DAFA" focuses on exploring the Balkh district.

Chapter III "Friends and Foes" consists of three paragraphs. Section 1, Self-Made, describes the history of the National Museum and Institute of Archaeology in Kabul. Unfortunately, the Museum was more like a warehouse, and it was run by non-professionals. The Institute was slightly more fortunate, but it did not become a "forge of personnel"either. In the 20th century, only two Afghans were archaeologists - Sh. Mustamindi and Z. Тарзи. Section 2 "Others" tells about the activities of a small number of American, British, German, and Japanese archaeologists and about the excavations of the expedition of the Italian Institute of the Middle and Far East (Istituto italiano per il Medio ed Estremo Oriente) under the leadership of J. R. R. Tolkien. Tucci. Tucci excavated the medieval monuments of Ghazni and the Buddhist sanctuary of Tepe Sardar.

Section 3 is devoted to the "Soviet-Afghan Expedition" led by Irina Kruglikova in 1969-1979. Among the excavations of the expedition, the most famous is the Tillya Tepe necropolis, discovered in 1978 by the group of V. I. Sarianidi - seven royal burials that yielded more than 20 thousand gold objects ("Bactrian gold"), which date back to the first century AD. By the decision of the then director of the Institute of Archeology of the USSR B. A. Rybakov, all the rights to publish the Tillya Tepe excavations were granted given to V. I. Sarianidi, despite the requests of I. T. Kruglikova to involve her in the publication as the head of the entire expedition. This, according to the authors, "an insufficiently balanced decision "(p. 89) led to many errors in the interpretation of the graves of the necropolis-a monument of Central Asian antiquity, reworked under the influence of the tastes of the heirs of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom-nomads, and to the actual loss of rights to the materials of Tillya Tepe by the Institute of Archeology that financed its excavations, since in all cases foreign exhibition catalogues of" Bactrian gold " attribute its discovery exclusively to V. I. Sarianidi.

Along with the Till Tepe excavations, the Soviet-Afghan expedition studied the ancient settlements of Dil-Berjin, Jagat Tepe, and Emshi Tepe, and conducted explorations of the northwestern territory of Afghanistan from Herat to Mazar-I-Sharif. Many of the sites she recorded were not included in the archaeological map of Afghanistan by W. Ball-J.-C. Gardin (Ball and Gardin, 1982; Krutikova, 2005, pp. 309-437). As a result of the work of I. T. Kruglikova and her colleagues, data on the city of Bactria of the Kushan era were obtained.

Unfortunately, "the bulk of the information [received by the expedition] turned out to be unclaimed" due to the lack of a final report - a monograph that sets out the main results in a concise and visual form (p.87). The authors see the reason for this in the psychological mood of the expedition participants, for whom "work in Afghanistan did not become... a' life's work ' "(ibid.). I think that disputes over the rights to sensational finds from Tillya Tepe contributed a lot to the reluctance of I. T. Kruglikova and V. I. Sarianidi to join forces to summarize all the materials obtained.

Part two, "The Tragedy," begins with chapter IV, " The Fate of Museums and Monuments." The authors tell about the looting of the Kabul and Herat museums during the civil war, about the barbaric excavations and destruction of all the famous monuments-Ai Khanum, Haddy, Tepe Sardar, the dynastic temple of the Kugaan kings in Surkh Kotal, Baktr (Balkh), Tillya Tepe. We have already mentioned the execution of Buddha statues in Bamiyan by order of the Taliban (personally by Mullah Omar). An antique market in neighboring Pakistan was flooded with monuments of the cultural heritage of the Afghan people. A treasure trove from Fulol and Tillya Tepe gold, hidden in the basements of the National Bank of Afghanistan, miraculously survived. Despite some revival of the Kabul Museum in 2003 and the organization of a number of international exhibitions with finds from Tillya Tepe and Fulol, "a huge number of works of ancient art" have died irretrievably, a significant part has settled in private collections, and "there is no complete certainty that the tragedy will not happen again" (p. 103).

Chapter V, "Treasures of the Goddess," explores the modern antique market with a hoard of gold, silver, and bronze coins from Mir Zakah, an area south of Kabul near Gardez. The rivalry of the" warlords "of Afghanistan, the" gray cardinal "of the antique market Nigel Markham, his Japanese colleague Noriyoshi Horiuchi, the sale of the treasure from Mir-Zakah to the Japanese billionaire Mihoko Koyama, the "goddess" of her own sect, the creation of the Miho Museum, in the funds of which the treasure from Mir-Zakah and acquired on antique markets settled

page 182
these are items from the looted Kabul Museum and other monuments of Afghanistan, a new name for the treasures of Mir-Zakah - "Treasures of ancient Bactria" - the reality of the age of purity and the omnipotence of money bags.

Part Three, Problems, contains three research chapters. In chapter VI, "The Bactrian city of Kushan times", based on the materials obtained by the Soviet-Afghan expedition, the history of Bactrian urbanization in ancient times is reconstructed (see also: Munchaev, Koshelenko, and Gaibov, 2014, pp. 24-45). All the cities studied by Soviet archaeologists appeared no later than the Achaemenid era (VI-IV centuries BC) and reached their peak in the Kushan period (the first centuries AD). The original form of organization of all the excavated ancient settlements: Dilberji-na, Emshi-tepe and Jagat-tepe is a circle of sacred significance (p. 131). The square plan of the Dilberjina Citadel is the result of Greek influence. The Kushan city was definitely a center of craft and trade and performed religious functions, but its connection with the administration is not traced on the available materials.

Probably, in Central Asia there were also "temple formations that have practically a state status" (p. 133). The authors refer to the data of the Takhti-Sangin monument, or Oxa Temple, studied by B. A. Litvinsky and I. R. Pichikyan [Litvinsky and Pichikyan, 2000; Litvinsky, 2001; Litvinsky, 2010], and to the information of Ibn al-Faqih about the possessions of high priests from the Barmak/Barmek family in the Balkh region (ibid.).

For my part, I will note some difficulties of the question formulated by the authors. First, how valid is it to combine such chronologically different phenomena? The Barmakids were hereditary priests of the Naubehar temple (from the Skt. navavihara "new monastery", Buddhist in character), which appears in sources no earlier than the 7th century. [Barthold, 1966, p. 670] 3. Life on the site of Takhti-Sangin stopped in the late Kush period-IV-V centuries. Secondly, what is meant by the "practically state character" of temple formations? Do their rulers/high priests have independence or autonomy? Where is the evidence that the Temple of Oxus enjoyed political autonomy within the Greco-Bactrian or Kushan kingdoms? Can we trust Ibn al-Faqih to point out that "all the inhabitants of this parish [subject to Barmak] were his slaves"? What exactly was the dependence of the population on the Barmakids? Land-based or personal? Were the inhabitants of the parish attached to it or only to the high priest? Did the civil temple communities known in ancient Asia Minor and Armenia exist in Central Asia?

These questions only mean that the hypothesis formulated by G. A. Koshelenko, R. M. Munchaev and V. A. Gaibov needs further verification. So far, only scattered and heterogeneous data speak in its favor - the interpretation of the materials of the excavations of one ancient settlement and the report of an Arab geographer, which in no way can be considered a documentary source.

Chapter VII "Tillya Tepe Necropolis: an Indian unique coin" is devoted to the analysis of a unique object from burial No. 4 (p. 137, fig. 1). In form, it is a coin, as originally considered by G. A. Koshelenko and V. I. Sarianidi, who published it, or a medal, according to V. Shilts. The authors of the reviewed monograph admit that this artifact can be both a coin and a medal (p. 139), and date it from 50 BC to 50 AD. Fussman (1982), for the first time encountered an anthropomorphic image of the Buddha "turning the wheel of dharma". The obverse of the coin shows a man turning the usual Buddhist symbol-the wheel of dharma, on the reverse-a lion and a triratna (the sign of the three treasures-Buddha, Dharma and sangha/Buddhist community, which the authors call pandipada - "krut crowned with a trident" - a typo instead of nandipada, p. 136). The lion is one of the symbols of the Buddha, so, according to the authors, the Buddha is represented twice on the coin.

The authors place the question of the genesis of the Buddha image in the general context of the evolution of Hindustan and Central Asian art and the influence of ancient art on it. Having described the historiographical disputes about the priority of developing an anthropomorphic image of the Buddha between supporters of the Gandhara and Mathura schools, the authors prefer Gandhara, as well as the author of the only monographic study of its art in Russian historiography, G. A. Pugachenkov

3 V. V. Barthold cites Balazuri's account of the destruction of Naubehar under Muawiyah in 663-664. and to Xuan Tsang's " Notes on Western Countries "(Dai Tang si yu ji) (on the previous page). According to the translation and commentary of N. V. Alexandrova, the monastery of Navasangharama was located in the country of Fohe (Bactria) /Nafosengjialan, but there is no mention of hereditary abbots in its description [Alexandrova, 2008, pp. 161-162, 280, note 312], which is not surprising for Buddhists.

page 183
[Pugachenkova, 1982, pp. 38-39] 4. The image of the Buddha on the Till Tepe coin "originated in the Greco-Indian milieu" (p. 146).

Chapter VIII, "The Bactrian King in a nomadic interpretation", is devoted to the interpretation of another artifact from Tillya Tepe-gold buckles with the image of a warrior from burial No. 3 (p. 151, fig. 1) (see also: [Koshelenko and Gaibov, 2008, pp. 86-98]). It is proved that "a typical Greek warrior of the Hellenistic era" (p.156) depicts a king to whom birds carry a diadem (ribbon) and who holds a spear - a symbol of royal power. This is the victorious king. The tree depicted next to it with birds on its top and "dragons" at its roots is an image of the world tree. The king is represented as equal to the tree, which, according to the authors, indicates his deification 5 (p. 160). At the same time, the authors see the origins of the image of birds bearing a diadem in "Iranian Zoroastrian concepts6, in Parthia (ibid.).

The collective monograph contains almost no inaccuracies. In my opinion, it lacks a single list of references (each chapter is followed by its own), pointers, and a more comprehensive conclusion. A summary in English would be highly desirable: its absence makes the book almost inaccessible to readers who do not know Russian. The Chinese bronze mirror from Tillya Tepe is called silver in the text (p. 153, cf. Fig. 5).

In general, the work of G. A. Koshelenko, R. M. Munchaev and V. A. Gaibov, intended for a wide audience, is a fundamental study of the problems of the history of archaeological research and the actual past of Afghanistan. The authors offered their understanding of the phenomenon of the Bactrian city of the Kushan era, artifacts from Tillya Tepe and showed the vulnerability of the historical and cultural memory of the people on the example of Afghanistan. They revealed a connection between archaeology and politics that can easily be forgotten in the brilliance of the finds.

list of literature

Aleksandrova N. V. Put ' i tekst: kitayskie palomniki v Indii [Path and text: Chinese Pilgrims in India]. Moscow: Vostochny lit., 2008.

Works on the history of Islam and the Arab Caliphate, Moscow: Nauka, GRVL, 1966.
Vigasin A. A. Indiskaya moneta, naidennaya pri raskopkakh Tillya-tepe [Indian coin found during the excavations of Tillya-tepe]. 2014. N 2.

Garden J.-K. Teoreticheskaya arkheologiya [Theoretical Archeology], translated from French, Moscow: Progress, 1983 (Social Sciences abroad. History). 296 p.

Koshelenko G. A., Gaibov V. A. Baktriyskiy tsar v kochevnicheskoy trektovke [The Bactrian King in nomadic interpretation]. Issue XXII. Moscow-Magnitogorsk-Novosibirsk, 2008.

Munchaev P. M., Koshelenko G. A., Gaibov V. A. Kushansky gorod Baktrii [Kushansky city of Bactria]. (Based on the results of the Soviet-Afghan archaeological expedition) / / Vestnik drevnoi istorii. 2014. N 1.

Krutikova I. T. Razvedka arkheologicheskikh pamyatnikov, provodavshaya sotrudnikami Sovetsko-Afganskoy arkheologicheskoy expeditsii (SAE) na severo i severo-zapad Afghanistan v 1969-1976 gg. [Exploration of archaeological sites conducted by the Soviet-Afghan Archaeological Expedition (SAE) in the North and North-west of Afghanistan in 1969-1976]. Problemy istorii, filologii, kul'tury, vol. XV, 2005.

4 Her monograph contains a photograph of the relief depicting the first sermon, where the dharma wheel meets on triratna, from the Lahore Central Museum [Pugachenkova. 1982, p. 126, ill. 132], apparently similar to the reliefs cited by the authors from Taxila (Dharmarajika complex), from Gandhara in the Peshawar Museum, from the Swat Valley in the Victoria and Albert Museum in London and in the Lucknow Museum (pp. 142-145, fig. 2-5). All of these reliefs show two deer in front of the Buddha's throne (a reference to the Deer Grove in Varanasi where the Buddha preached his first sermon), but the triratna sign is missing from the reliefs from the Swat Valley and Lucknow Museum. On the obverse of the Till-Tepe coin, J. Fussman saw a bearded character (Fussman, 1982, p. 166). The beard in Gandharic art eventually became a sign of the bodhisattva Vajrapani (Pugachenkova, 1982, pp. 59-60, ill. 57-58). The authors of the reviewed publication do not explain whether the "thickening" of the character's face can be considered a beard and what its symbolic meaning is for the Buddha turning the wheel of dharma. Recently, A. A. Vigasin suggested that it depicts the king-chakravartin ("turning the wheel of dharma") in the image of a naked Hercules with the skin of a Nemean lion on his shoulders [Vigasin, 2014, p. 109-117].

5 It would be interesting to trace the connection between the deification of the Greek-Bactrian king Antimachus Theos ("God") and the ideas about the divinity of rulers among the nomadic conquerors of Bactria (of Iranian - Tocharian origin) and the Kushans.

6 While I agree that this is an Iranian tradition, I would not venture to call it specifically Zoroastrian. The reference to "Zamiyad-yasht" (Yasht 19, "Zamyad-Yasht") of the Avesta (p.159) is hardly sufficient to justify such a definition, since the time and place of creation of this text are far from clear. The mythological motif of the world tree on the Tillya Tepe buckle mentioned by the authors is not found in Zamyad Yashta, but it is too widespread to be a marker of a particular religious system.

page 184
Litvinskiy B. A. Temple of Oks in Bactria (Southern Tajikistan). Vol. 2. Bactrian armament in the Ancient Eastern and Greek context, Moscow: Vostochny lit., 2001.

Litvinskiy B. A. Temple of Oks in Bactria (Southern Tajikistan). Vol. 3: Iskusstvo, khudozhestvennoe crafto, muzykalnye instrumenty [Art, art craft, musical instruments], Moscow: Vostochny lit., 2010.

Litvinsky B. A., Pichikyan I. R. Hellenistic temple of Oxus in Bactria (Southern Tajikistan). Vol.1. Excavations. Architecture. Religious Life, Moscow: Vostochnaya lit., 2000.
Pugachenkova G. A. Iskusstvo Gandhara [The Art of Gandhara], Moscow: Iskusstvo Publ., 1982 (From the History of World Art; Commission of the USSR for UNESCO).

Ball W., avec la collaboration de J.-CI. Gardin. Archaeological Gazetteer of Afghanistan: Catalogue des sites archéologiques d'Afghanistan. T. I-II. P., 1982.

Clémentin-Ojha C, Manguin P.-Y. A Century in Asia: The History of the École Française d'Extrême-Orient, 1898-2006. P.: Editions Didiet Millet-École Française d'Extrême-Orient, 2007.

Fussman G. Monnaie d'or de Kaniska inédite, au type du Buddha // Revue numismatique. 6e série. T. 24. 1982.

Ghirshman R. Bégram: Recherches archéologiques et historiques sur les Kouchans. Le Caire, 1946 (Mémoires de la Délégation archéologique française en Afghanistan, vol. XII).

Maitre Cl.-E. Chroniques: Les origines du conflit russo-japonais // Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême-Orient. T.4. 1904.

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